-{-TURKISH -LIFE- IN -:- 
TOWN -AND -COUNTRY 


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OUR  EUROPEAN 
NEIGHBOURS 

EDITED  BY 

WILLIAM  HARBUTT  DAWSON 


TURKISH  LIFE  IN  TOWN  AND 
COUNTRY 


,  31KjG£ O.IAN.  WOMEN  OF    /INIKENY,  MACEDONIA 


TURKISH  LIFE 
IN  TOWN  AND 
COUNTRY  ^    at 

By  LUCY  M.  J.  GARNETT 


ILLUSTRATED 


G.  P.  PUTNAM'S  SONS 
NEW  YORK  AND  LONDON 

Gbe  "Knickerbocker  press 


>«ri    1  ii  J.iii mail!  ki  . 


& 


Copyright,  1904 

BY 

G.  P.  PUTNAM'S  SONS 


Published,  January,  1904 

Reprinted,  December,  1004;  November,  1908 

December,  191 1 


Zbr  UnfcfctrL-ocSer  press,  Hew  Iflorft 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  1 

PAGB 

INHABITANTS  AND  INSTITUTIONS  I 

CHAPTER  II 
^    LANDS  AND  DWELLINGS  .  .  19 

CHAPTER  III 
TOWN  LIFE 35 

CHAPTER  IV 
HAREM  LIFE 7$ 

CHAPTER  V 
^    COUNTRY  LIFE IO5 

CHAPTER  VI 

LIFE  AT  YILDIZ  KIOSK 124 

CHAPTER  VII 

RELIGIOUS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT  .  .  .  1 46 

281465 


PAGE 


vi  Contents 

CHAPTER  VIII 
MONASTIC  LIFE 1 77 

CHAPTER  IX 
EDUCATION  AND  CULTURE        .  .  .  I96 

CHAPTER  X 
THE   ALBANIAN   HIGHLANDERS  .  .      '     .      2l6 

CHAPTER  XI 
THE  MACEDONIAN   NATIONALITIES    .  •  .      2}4 

CHAPTER  XII 

THE  ARMENIAN   COMMUNITIES  .  .  .      259 

CHAPTER  XIII 
THE  HEBREW   COLONIES  ....      275 

CHAPTER  XIV 
NOMAD  LIFE 289 

CHAPTER  XV 
BRIGAND  LIFE 305 

GLOSSARY 329 

INDEX 333 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


BULGARIAN  WOMEN  OF  YENIKENY,  MACEDONIA 

Frontispiece 


THE  ENTRANCE  TO  THE  SUBLIME  PORTE 
A  BAZAAR  AT  BROUSSA  . 


TURKS  IN  THE  CEMETERY  OF  EYOUB  OVERLOOK- 
ING THE  GOLDEN  HORN    . 

YILDIZ  KIOSK — THE  SULTAN'S  RESIDENCE 

TURKS  OF  THE  LABOURING  CLASS  AT  A  COFFEE- 
HOUSE IN  STAMBOUL 

STREET  IN  A  TURKISH  QUARTER  OF  STAMBOUL 


8 
32 

36 
46 

78 


THE  FRIDAY  CEREMONY  OF  THE  SELAMLIK — 
STATE  PROCESSION  OF  THE  SULTAN  TO  THE 
MOSQUE 102 

TURKISH    LADY    WEARING   THE   YASHMAK    AND 

FERIDJE I06 

THE  GIPSY  SMITH'S  DAUGHTERS         .  .  .      1 1 8 

vii 


viii  Illustrations 

PAGE 

TURKISH  PEASANTS  AND  DRAUGHT    OXEN — ASIA 

MINOR 120 

GROUP  OF  DERVISHES l8o 

A  CLASSROOM  IN  A  TURKISH   COLLEGE       .  .      202 

MOHAMMEDAN  ALBANIANS  OF  DIBREH  .  .      226 

MAIN  STREET  IN  THE  ARMENIAN  QUARTER  OF 
BROUSSA — ENTRANCE  TO  THE  CHURCH  ON 
THE  RIGHT 260 

AN  ENCAMPMENT  OF  NOMAD  GIPSIES         .  .        ^02 


TURKISH  LIFE  IN  TOWN  AND 
COUNTRY 


TURKISH  LIFE  IN  TOWN 
AND  COUNTRY 


CHAPTER  I 

INHABITANTS   AND   INSTITUTIONS 

NO  country  in  the  world,  perhaps,  contains  a 
population  so  heterogeneous  as  that  of 
Turkey.  In  addition  to  the  various  peaceable 
immigrations  of  Jews  and  Tartars,  Circassians 
and  Gipsies,  succeeding  waves  of  invasion  from 
East,  West,  North,  and  South  have  through 
countless  centuries  thrown  upon  its  shores  and 
frontiers  hordes  of  conquering  aliens,  in  their 
turn  to  be  vanquished  and  subjected  by  a  later 
arrival.  And  at  the  present  day  we  find  in 
Turkey,  living  side  by  side  in  varying  degrees 
of  amity  or  enmity,  a  dozen  different  races  — 
Kurds,  Circassians  and  Albanians,  Greeks  and 
Vlachs,  Armenians  and  Bulgarians,  and  many 
others,   all    finally    subjected    by   the   Ottoman 


2  Turkish  Life 

Turks,  or,  as  they  call  themselves,  Osmanlis. 
Originally,  and  as  late  as  the  thirteenth  century, 
but  a  mere  wandering  band  of  warriors  from 
Central  Asia,  numbering  some  fifteen  hundred 
families,  these  Ottoman  Turks  have  for  the  last 
five  hundred  years,  in  the  face  of  enormous  diffi- 
culties, kept  all  these  diverse  subject  peoples 
within  the  bond  of  a  united  Empire. 

Specimens  of  these  races  and  many  others 
may  be  met  with  every  day  in  the  streets  of 
Constantinople  and  the  large  seaports  of  the 
Levant;  every  provincial  town  of  any  import- 
ance includes  representatives  of  at  least  half  a 
dozen;  and  even  villages  may  contain  families 
belonging  to  two  or  three  different  nationalities. 
Largely  as  the  Turkish  element  has  increased 
since  its  first  appearance  in  history,  it  forms  but 
a  small  proportion  of  the  population  of  European 
Turkey;  in  the  Armenian  provinces  of  Asia  Minor 
it  scarcely  amounts  to  a  third;  and  it  is  only  in 
its  first  habitat,  the  province  of  Konieh  —  the 
ancient  Iconium  —  and  part  of  Broussa  and  of 
Aidin,  that  the  mass  of  the  population  may  be 
considered  Turkish.  Greeks  predominate  every- 
where on  the  coasts  of  the  i^Egean,  and  in  all 
the  large  towns,  save  in  Macedonia,  are  found 
important  Armenian  communities.  The  Turks, 
during  their  five  centuries  of  rule  over  these 
Christian  nationalities  of  South-eastern  Europe, 
have  done  little  to  assimilate  them,  and  still  less 


Inhabitants  and  Institutions       3 

have  they  been  assimilated  by  them,  notwith- 
standing the  fact  that  all  Osmanlis,  save  per- 
haps those  of  the  peasant  class,  are,  owing  to 
the  institution  of  slavery,  of  very  mixed  descent 
indeed.  But  though  ethnically  so  mixed,  a  dis- 
tinct national  type  may  be  readily  recognised. 

Pride  of  race  is  excessive  in  the  Turks,  and 
the  habit  of  domination  has  been  developed  by 
their  position  as  a  ruling  people  surrounded  by 
subject  nationalities.  As  a  nation,  they  display 
an  overweening  sense  of  their  superiority  to  the 
subject  races,  having  no  interests  or  aspirations 
in  common  with  them,  never  acquiring  their 
languages,  or  attempting  to  understand  their 
manners  and  customs,  which  they  may  be  said 
to  regard  generally  with  a  somewhat  contempt- 
uous toleration.  The  social  organisation  of  the 
Osmanlis  themselves  is,  on  the  other  hand,  dis- 
tinctly opposed  to  the  principles  of  aristocracy 
and  hereditary  rank.  The  connections  even  of 
the  Imperial  family  do  not  form  a  noble  or  privi- 
leged class,  as  Sultan's  daughters  marry  subjects, 
and  the  genealogy  of  their  descendants  is,  in  a 
few  generations,  lost  sight  of.  The  division  of 
estates  among  all  the  children  of  one  father, 
daughters  as  well  as  sons,  and  the  Oriental  pro- 
pensity of  the  Government  to  confiscate  accu- 
mulations of  money,  also  prove  effectual  barriers 
to  the  transmission  to  descendants  of  family 
position  and  affluence. 


4  Turkish  Life 

In  Macedonia  there  are  still  a  considerable 
number  of  Beys,  or  landed  gentry,  whose  ances- 
tors—  many  of  them  newly  converted  Moslems 
of  non-Turkish  origin  —  obtained  grants  of  land 
at  the  conquest,  which  they  held  as  military  fiefs; 
and  previous  to  the  introduction  in  1867  of  the 
present  centralising  administration,  the  country 
districts  of  this  province  were  ruled  by  local 
magnates,  either  such  Turkish  feudatories,  or 
tribal  chieftains,  such  as  are  still  found  in  Albania 
and  Kurdistan,  whose  loyalty  to  the  Porte  was 
most  easily  secured  by  allowing  them  entire  free- 
dom in  dealing  with  their  own  vassals. 

With  the  exception  of  these  provincial  families, 
in  which  the  title  of  Bey  is  hereditary,  and  who 
form  the  landed  gentry  of  the  country,  the  Otto- 
mans have  never  had  an  aristocracy  properly  so 
called.  All  the  Moslem  subjects  of  the  Sultan, 
whether  born  freemen  or  emancipated  slaves, 
are  held  to  be  on  a  level  beneath  him.  And 
there  is  nothing  in  the  social  system  of  Turkey 
to  prevent  the  poorest  Osmanli  attaining  the 
highest  dignity,  that  of  Grand  Vizier.  On  the 
other  hand,  a  deposed  Minister  may  descend  to 
an  inferior  employment  without  either  losing 
caste,  or  forfeiting  any  of  his  civil  rights,  or  be- 
coming ineligible  for  office  when  fortune's  wheel 
again  revolves  for  him.  To  the  Oriental  mind 
there  is,  consequently,  nothing  extraordinary  in 
Joseph's  having  risen  from  the  position  of  a  slave 


Inhabitants  and  Institutions       5 

to  that  of  Grand  Vizier  of  the  King  of  Egypt,  or 
in  the  marriage  of  handsome  and  adventurous 
"widows'  sons,"  or  other  heroes  of  fairy  tales, 
with  kings'  daughters.  For  the  Oriental  pos- 
sessor of  wit  and  audacity  may  indeed  say  with 
Pistol,  "  The  world  's  mine  oyster!  " 

With  few  exceptions,  family  names  are  un- 
known among  the  Turks,  a  still  further  proof  of 
the  absence  from  their  institutions  of  class  di- 
visions. Men's  names  are  generally  either  Bibli- 
cal or  historical,  and  to  them  is  often  added  a 
nickname  denoting  some  personal  peculiarity, 
physical  or  moral,  such  as  "Bajuksis  (short- 
legged)  Ali  Pasha,"  "  Kuchuk  (little)  Selim  Ef- 
fendi,"  "  Chapgun  (scamp)  Ali  Bey."  The  only 
Turkish  title  which  carries  with  it  any  definite 
rank  and  precedence  is  that  of  Pasha,  being 
conferred  personally  by  the  Sultan  on  the  man 
whom  he  "  delighteth  to  honour."  u  Bey  "  and 
'*  ErTendi  "  are  merely  conventional  designations 
as  indefinite  as  our  "  Esquire  "  has  come  to  be. 
"  Bey"  is  generally  applied  to  high  government 
officials,  colonels,  distinguished  persons  and 
their  sons.  "ErTendi"  has  the  same  significa- 
tion as  the  French  Monsieur,  and  is  variously 
applied  to  princes  of  the  royal  house,  to  Mollahs 
and  Shekhs,  to  women,  and  even  to  native 
Christians.  It  is  also  used  in  conjunction  with 
other  titles,  a  gentleman  being  addressed  as 
"Bey  ErTendi,"  or,  "  Pasha  ErTendi,"  and  a  lady 


6  Turkish  Life 

as  "  Hanum  Effendi."  Aga  is  applied  to  petty 
officers  and  respectable  elderly  Turks,  and  Tche- 
lebi("  gentleman  ")  to  persons  of  the  better  class 
generally,  whether  Christian  or  Moslem.  But 
notwithstanding  this  absence  of  hereditary  rank 
and  class  distinction — perhaps  because  of  it — 
every  Osmanli  is  by  nature  an  aristocrat,  and  the 
same  dignity  of  bearing  and  courtesy  of  manner 
may  be  met  with  in  the  hovel  of  the  peasant  as 
in  the  honak  of  the  Pasha. 

For  administrative  purposes,  Turkey  is  divided 
into  vilayets,  or  provinces,  each  of  which  is  un- 
der the  authority  of  a  Vali  or  civil  Governor- 
General  appointed  by  the  Sultan.  These  vilayets 
are  again  subdivided  into  three  or  four  sanjaks 
or  departments,  administered  by  sub-governors 
called  mutessarifs,  and  again  into  caqas  and  na- 
hies,  or  cantons  and  communes,  the  latter  being 
aggregates  of  from  five  to  ten  villages  under  the 
administration  of  a  civil  official  termed  the  Mudir, 
a  kind  of  justice  of  the  peace.  The  capital  is 
not,  however,  included  in  any  of  these  vilayets, 
but  has  a  separate  jurisdiction.  The  judicial  or- 
ganisation of  the  country  was  entirely  remodelled 
during  the  last  century,  and  the  procedure  of  the 
civil  code  is  now  based  partly  on  the  Code  Na- 
poleon and  partly  on  the  usages  of  the  ancient 
courts  of  the  country.  Criminal  law  and  its  pro- 
cedure and  also  commercial  law  are  likewise 
borrowed  from  the  French  judicial  system,  while 


Inhabitants  and  Institutions        7 

the  mercantile  law  is  partly  that  of  France 
and  partly  that  of  Holland.  The  courts  may  be 
classified  as  the  ancient  and  the  reformed;  the 
former,  which  may  be  called  semi-religious,  con- 
stitutes part  of  the  office  of  the  Shekh-ul-Islam, 
and  deals  chiefly  with  inheritance,  marriage,  and 
divorce,  and  other  matters  in  which  only  Mo- 
hammedans are  concerned;  the  latter  are  under 
the  control  of  the  Minister  of  Justice,  an  official 
of  the  Sublime  Porte. 

This  imitation  of  French  methods,  which  re- 
sults in  Turkey's  having  several  judges  in  one 
court  belonging  to  different  nationalities  and  re- 
ligions, is  by  no  means  such  an  improvement  on 
the  old  method  as  was  anticipated  by  those  re- 
sponsible for  its  introduction,  and  leads  to  per- 
haps even  greater  venality  and  injustice  than 
existed  under  the  old  one-judge  system.  The 
methods  pursued  under  present  Hamidian  tyr- 
anny have  also  altogether  destroyed  the  confi- 
dence of  the  people  in  the  new  judicial  system, 
the  most  important  legal  offices  being  filled  by 
worthless  and  incompetent  men  whose  syco- 
phancy and  subserviency  have  gained  them  the 
favour  of  the  Sultan  or  of  his  satellites.  This  judi- 
cial organisation  is  supplemented  by  mixed  coun- 
cils, composed  of  Christians  and  Jews  as  well  as 
of  Moslems,  such  as  Chambers  of  Commerce 
and  Mercantile  Marine;  the  Medjliss,  or  Munici- 
pal Council,  composed  of  representatives  of  the 


8  Turkish  Life 

various  communities,  Christian,  Moslem,  and 
Jewish,  of  a  city  or  township;  and  the  Council  of 
Elders,  Christian  or  Jewish,  which  everywhere 
regulates  the  internal  affairs  of  a  local  community 
without  interference  from  the  Turkish  authori- 
ties, save  when  specially  appealed  to.  Though 
the  judicial  administration  is  theoretically  inde- 
pendent of  the  executive,  the  latter  has  the  power 
to  arrest  offenders,  if  not  to  try  and  sentence 
them,  and  often  makes  use  of  it  in  most  arbitrary 
fashion,  sending  to  prison  individuals  against 
whom  no  specific  charge  is  made,  and  who  may 
languish  there  for  months,  or  even  years,  unless 
some  influential  person  is  found  to  agitate  the 
subject  of  their  release.  For  despite  all  statutes 
to  the  contrary,  Turkey  is  no  more  constitution- 
ally governed  at  the  present  day  than  it  was  four 
centuries  ago.  And  that  the  exercise  of  this 
arbitrary  power  is  officially  approved  is  evident 
from  the  fact  that  it  is  esteemed  an  act  of  Im- 
perial clemency  when  the  Sultan  commands  the 
release  from  durance  of  all  those  prisoners 
"against  whom  there  is  no  charge  " ! 

Further,  to  complicate  matters,  there  exists, 
as  above  mentioned,  in  addition  to  the  civil 
system  of  jurisprudence,  the  semi -religious 
court  of  the  Sheriat,  based  on  the  Sunna, 
or  Traditions,  and  administered  by  Kadis,  the 
supreme  court  of  appeal  for  which  is  the 
Shekh-ul-Islam.     In  the  case   of  Moslems  this 


Inhabitants  and  Institutions       9 

law  may  be  applied  to  all  transactions,  but  its 
peculiar  importance  is  due  to  the  fact  that  all 
questions  affecting  real  property,  whatever  be 
the  religion  or  nationality  of  the  ligitants,  must 
be  decided  according  to  its  principles.  The  func- 
tionaries who  administer  this  religious  law  be- 
long to  the  higher  ranks  of  the  important  body 
of  Moslem  legists  termed  collectively  Ulema  (of 
which  the  Shekh-ul-Islam  is  the  head),  who 
constitute  the  most  conservative  section  of 
Moslem  society.  The  order  of  the  Ulema  is 
divided  into  three  classes,  composed  respectively 
of  the  Imams  and  other  inferior  functionaries  of 
the  mosques,  the  Muftis,  or  Doctors  of  Law,  and 
the  Kadis  and  Mollahs,  or  Judges,  the  last  two 
categories  being  subdivided  into  a  number  of  in- 
termediate ranks  according  to  the  special  func- 
tions attached  to  the  court  of  the  Sheriat.  It 
must,  however,  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  Ulema 
do  not  constitute  a  sacerdotal  caste,  or  even  an 
ecclesiastical  body,  save  so  far  as  law  in  Moslem 
countries  is  based  on  the  Koran.  There  is,  in- 
deed, no  country  in  Europe  in  which  the  clerical 
element  has  so  little,  or  the  legal  element  so  great, 
authority.  The  avarice  and  venality  of  the  Muf- 
tis, Mollahs,  and  Kadis  are  proverbial,  and  form 
one  of  the  worst  features  of  Turkish  administra- 
tion, few  judges  being  free  from  the  reproach  of 
partiality  and  corruption. 
The  actual  ministers  of  public  worship,  such 


io  Turkish  Life 

as  the  Imams  who  pronounce  the  public  prayers, 
the  Hodjas,  Muezzims,  and  others,  constitute  but 
a  subordinate  section  of  the  Ulema.  The  Imams, 
who  form  the  nearest  approach  to  a  beneficed 
clergy,  pass  an  examination,  and  are  appointed 
to  their  office  by  the  Shekh-ul-Islam,  their  chief 
function  being  to  conduct  public  worship  in  the 
mosques.  The  royal  mosques  have  several 
Imams,  the  chief  of  whom  has  as  his  subordin- 
ates all  the  other  Imams,  the  Hodjas,  Khatibs, 
Muezzims,  and  other  ministers.  An  Imam  should 
be  married,  and  may  bequeath  his  office  to  his  son, 
who,  if  unlettered,  appoints  a  deputy  to  perform 
his  duties.  This  lower  class  of  the  Ulema,  who, 
like  the  Softas,  are  distinguished  by  a  white 
turban  bound  round  the  fez,  and  by  wearing  the 
old  Turkish  dress,  are  drawn  from  the  lower 
middle  class  of  Turkish  society  and  exercise  little 
or  no  influence  in  their  parishes.  An  Imam  lives 
rent-free  in  a  house  attached  to  the  mosque,  and 
receives  a  very  small  annual  stipend  eked  out  by 
fees  for  teaching  in  the  mekteb,  or  elementary 
school,  issuing  licences,  officiating  at  circumcis- 
ions, weddings,  and  funerals,  and  washing  the 
dead.  An  Imam  must  also  always  accompany 
the  officers  of  justice  on  making  a  domiciliary 
visit,  as  no  arrest  can  be  made  in  a  house  unless 
the  police  follow  this  official  across  the  threshold. 
As  is  evident  from  the  foregoing,  there  is  in 
Islam  no  distinction  between  Church  and  State, 


Inhabitants  and  Institutions      1 1 

and  the  Shekh-ul-Islam,  though  the  highest  ec- 
clesiastical dignitary,  is  at  the  same  time  but  an 
official,  appointed  and  dismissed  by  the  Sultan, 
his  importance  being  due  rather  to  his  legal 
standing  as  judge  of  the  highest  court  of  appeal 
than  to  his  religious  office.  For  though  on  occa- 
sions of  ceremony  he  appears  at  the  head  of  the 
Ulema,  he  has  in  no  sense  the  authority  of  a 
Christian  archbishop,  and  is,  indeed,  often  re- 
garded with  contempt  as  a  mere  subservient  tool 
of  the  Padishah,  who,  as  he  can  legally  issue  no 
decree  without  the  formal  sanction  of  the  Shekh- 
ul-lslam,  naturally  chooses  for  the  office  a  man 
not  likely  to  oppose  his  policy. 

The  Moslem  era  used  by  the  Turks  dates  from 
the  Flight  (Hejira)  of  Mohammed  from  Mekka  to 
Medina  on  the  night  of  the  1 5th-i6th  July,  622 
a.d.  The  national  calendar  is  lunar,  the  year 
being  divided  into  twelve  months,  consisting 
alternately  of  twenty-nine  and  thirty  days,  and 
comprising,  therefore,  only  three  hundred  and 
fifty-four  days;  and  as  no  complementary  days 
are  added  to  adjust  this  calendar  in  accordance 
with  astronomical  events,  national  anniversaries 
and  religious  festivals  make,  in  the  course  of 
every  thirty-three  Turkish  years,  the  round  of 
the  seasons.  The  peasantry,  however,  for  or- 
dinary purposes  in  their  reckoning  of  time,  ad- 
here to  the  ancient  and  more  convenient  practice 
of  dividing  the  year  into  two  seasons,  summer 


12  Turkish  Life 

and  winter,  the  former  being  inaugurated  by  the 
great  Nature-festival  of  Khidrelie,  equivalent  to 
St.  George's  Day,  and  the  latter  by  that  of  Kas- 
sim,  held  late  in  the  autumn.  The  hours  of  the 
day  are  still  reckoned,  in  ancient  Oriental  fashion, 
from  sunset  to  sunset,  which  is  estimated  with 
more  or  less  exactitude.  Many  of  the  watches 
used  in  Turkey  are  made  with  two  dials,  one  for 
Turkish  and  the  other  for  European  time,  the 
former,  to  be  correct,  requiring  daily  regulation; 
and  one  may  often  hear  the  seemingly  odd  ques- 
tion asked:  "At  what  time  is  noon  to-day?" 
In  Turkey,  however,  few  people  require  to  catch 
trains  or  steamboats ;  time-tables  are  also  as  often 
ignored  as  consulted;  and  punctuality  is  not  a 
virtue  cultivated  by  the  Oriental.  On  the  ma- 
jority of  Turkish  railways  there  is  but  one  train 
a  day  up  or  down  the  line,  and  intending  pas- 
sengers will  arrive  at  the  platform  at  any  hour, 
and  seated  on  their  baggage,  will  wait  calmly  and 
patiently — sometimes,  it  may  be,  for  the  best 
part  of  a  day  and  night  —  for  the  next  train.  In- 
shallah  (Allah  permitting)  they  will  ultimately 
arrive  at  their  destination. 

With  reference  to  the  institution  of  polygamy, 
though  a  Mohammedan  is  legally  entitled  to 
marry  four  wives,  and  to  be  the  owner  of  as 
many  female  slaves  as  he  can  afford  to  keep,  an 
Osmanli  household  is  by  no  means,  as  is  gener- 
ally believed,  composed  of  a  large  number  of 


Inhabitants  and  Institutions      13 

women,  all  of  whom  stand  in  wifely  relations  to 
their  lord  and  master.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  at  the 
present  day,  among  Turks  of  the  labouring  class, 
one  wife  is  the  rule,  and,  among  those  of  the 
wealthier  classes,  more  than  one  is  the  rare  ex- 
ception; for  besides  social  opinion  and  other 
considerations  which  make  a  plurality  of  wives 
undesirable,  there  is  also  the  grave  question  of 
expense.  A  second  wife  means  an  extra  suite 
of  apartments,  an  extra  slave,  or  train  of  slaves, 
according  to  her  rank, —  for  each  hanum  must 
have  her  own  special  attendants, —  and  an  extra 
allowance  of  pin-money,  for  a  Turkish  bride 
rarely  brings  a  dower  to  her  husband.  There  is, 
besides,  no  great  superabundance  of  women  in 
the  country,  notwithstanding  the  influx  of  slaves; 
and  every  mother  of  a  marriageable  girl  naturally 
prefers  to  see  her  daughter  become  a  Bash  Kadin, 
or  first  wife,  as  she  takes  rank  before  later-mar- 
ried spouses.  Lack  of  progeny  by  the  first  con- 
sort is  often  the  reason  which  induces  a  Turk  to 
incur  extra  expense,  and  the  risk  of  having  his 
domestic  peace  disturbed,  by  taking  a  second 
wife.  He  might,  of  course,  divorce  the  first,  if 
so  minded;  but  in  that  case  he  would  be  obliged 
to  pay  to  her  the  sum  stipulated  in  the  settle- 
ment, and  incur  the  odium  attaching  to  such  a 
course  of  action.  Two  wives,  indeed,  seem  to 
be  the  extreme  limit  nowadays,  and  only  once 
during  my  long  residence  in  different  parts  of 


H  Turkish  Life 

the  country  had  I  the  opportunity  of  visiting  a 
harem  containing  more  than  one.  For  though 
great  facilities  appear  at  first  sight  to  be  given  to 
a  man  in  the  matter  of  divorce,  women  are,  on 
the  other  hand,  safeguarded  from  a  too  arbitrary 
exercise  of  this  prerogative  by  certain  wise  regu- 
lations which  to  a  great  extent  modify  such  facili- 
ties in  practice.  "The  curse  of  Allah,"  said  the 
Prophet,  "rests  on  him  who  capriciously  re- 
pudiates his  wife."  And  besides  religious  and 
social  restrictions,  a  serious  obstacle  to  divorce  is 
offered  by  the  Nekyah.  This  is  the  settlement 
upon  the  wife  at  the  betrothal  of  a  considerable 
sum  of  money,  to  be  paid  to  her  in  the  event  of 
such  dismissal  from  his  roof,  and  without  the 
payment  of  which  no  divorce  can  legally  take 
place.  A  wife  can  also  claim  her  release,  to- 
gether with  the  payment  of  the  dowry,  for  vari- 
ous reasons,  among  which  are  his  desertion, 
cruelty,  or  refusal  to  maintain  her  in  the  degree 
of  comfort  to  which  she  is  entitled.  If,  how- 
ever, the  wife,  without  such  adequate  reason, 
and  contrary  to  the  desire  of  her  husband,  re- 
quests a  divorce,  she  quite  rightly  obtains  it  only 
by  foregoing  her  dower. 

The  legal  rights  conferred  upon  women  by  the 
law  of  Islam  are  superior  to  those  generally  en- 
joyed under  Christianity.  An  Osmanli  woman 
is,  as  a  daughter,  entitled  on  the  decease  of  her 
father  to  inherit  his  property  in  common  with 


Inhabitants  and  Institutions      15 

her  brothers,  in  a  proportion  determined  by  law 
according  to  the  number  of  his  children.  As 
a  wife,  she  has  the  uncontrolled  possession  and 
disposal  both  of  the  wealth  of  which  she  was 
possessed  before  marriage,  and  of  that  which 
may  subsequently  accrue  to  her.  She  can  in- 
herit property  without  the  intervention  of  trust- 
ees, and  dispose  of  it  either  during  her  lifetime 
or  at  her  death  as  she  pleases.  No  doctrine  of 
"coverture"  exists  for  her;  she  can  sue  or  be 
sued  independently  of  her  husband,  and  also  sue 
him  or  be  sued  by  him.  A  husband  is,  however, 
legally  bound  to  support  his  wife  and  her  slaves 
or  servants  according  to  her  rank  and  his  means, 
and  to  furnish  her  with  a  suitable  residence. 
And  as  to  the  question  of  the  custody  of  children, 
with  us,  much-discussed,  this  was  settled  for 
the  Moslems  at  the  outset  by  Mohammed,  who 
decreed  that  a  son  must  remain  with  his  mother 
so  long  as  he  requires  her  care,  and  a  daughter 
until  she  arrives  at  maturity.  Should  the  mother 
die  while  any  of  her  children  are  still  infants,  the 
right  of  custody  reverts  to  her  female  relatives, 
the  maternal  grandmother  having  the  first  right, 
and  on  her  death,  and  failing  a  sister  of  suitable 
age,  the  aunts. 

Turkish  women  thus  already  possess  all  the 
legal  personal  and  proprietary  rights  necessary 
to  give  them  a  social  position  equal,  if  not  supe- 
rior, to  that  of  European  women  generally;  and 


1 6  Turkish  Life 

the  objection  to  their  emancipation  from  harem 
restraints  is  consequently  one  of  custom  and 
prejudice  rather  than  of  religious  law,  the  seclu- 
sion of  women  and  the  veiling  of  the  face  being 
immemorial  social  usages  borrowed  from  other 
neighbouring  Oriental  races,  and  not  institutions 
peculiarly  Turkish,  and  no  religious  law  would 
therefore  be  contravened  by  a  change  in  thes* 
merely  social  customs.  This  question  of  the 
emancipation  of  women  is,  indeed,  one  which 
will,  in  all  probability,  have  to  be  faced  by  the 
Turks  in  the  not  far  distant  future,  and  many  men 
belonging  to  the  enlightened  "Young  Turkey" 
party  are  already  in  favour  of  giving  to  the  women 
of  their  nation  the  social  and  industrial  freedom 
enjoyed  by  their  Christian  sisters.  Serious  diffi- 
culties of  all  kinds  stand,  however,  in  the  way  of 
this  very  desirable  reform,  and  one  of  the  most 
important  of  these  is  the  fact  that  the  abolition  of 
the  harem  system  must  necessarily  entail  the  aboli- 
tion of  domestic  slavery,  its  inseparable  adjunct. 
All  kinds  of  restrictions,  legal  and  customary, 
which  now  make  for  morality  in  the  family  rela- 
tions of  the  Turks  would,  under  the  new  condi- 
tions, be  thrown  aside,  and  the  result,  in  the 
opinion  of  those  competent  to  judge,  would  in- 
evitably be — for  a  generation  at  least — great  so- 
cial laxity,  if  not  licence.  For  if,  as  is  the  case, 
only  a  very  small  minority  of  Turkish  women 
are  as  yet  fitted  by  education  for  such  new  con- 


Inhabitants  and  Institutions      17 

ditions,  the  same  may  be  said  of  Turkish  men. 
And  in  a  city  like  Constantinople,  the  centre  of  a 
great  military  system,  suddenly  to  make  respon- 
sible for  their  own  maintenance  thousands  of  ig- 
norant women  hitherto  protected  and  maintained 
in  private  houses,  and  for  the  most  part  unaccus- 
tomed to  any  but  the  most  desultory  household 
duties,  would  be  to  create  a  social  evil  now  hap- 
pily non-existent.  A  change  so  far-reaching  in 
its  consequences  could,  indeed,  take  place  with- 
out great  resulting  evil  to  the  nation  at  large  only 
by  such  preparatory  organisation  for  the  wage- 
employment  of  the  emancipated  as  one  can  hardly 
expect  to  see  carried  out  in  Turkey. 

Difficult  of  realisation  as  such  a  measure  of  re- 
form is  of  itself,  some  of  its  advocates  among 
the  "  Young  Turkey  "  enthusiasts  appear  to  add 
unnecessarily  to  its  complications  by  requiring 
that  their  emancipated  womenkind  shall  be  at 
once  placed  on  a  level  with  their  self-supporting 
sisters  in  the  West.  It  seems  a  case  of  "more 
haste,  less  speed  " ;  for  the  Armenian  and  Greek 
women  of  Turkey,  many  of  whom  are  now  at 
liberty  to  follow  various  industries  and  pro- 
fessions, enjoyed  at  the  beginning  of  last  cent- 
ury even  less  personal  liberty  than  their  Moslem 
sisters.  The  change  has,  however,  come  about 
gradually,  and  has  been  chiefly  due  to  the  spread 
of  education  during  the  past  century  among  the 
men  of  these  Christian  nationalities.     Economic 


1 8  Turkish  Life 

conditions  also  differ  widely  in  East  and  West; 
and  as  there  is  no  such  surplus  population  of 
women  as,  for  instance,  in  Great  Britain  and  the 
United  States,  domestic  service  would  afford 
sufficient  employment  for  women  of  the  lower 
class  of  the  newly  emancipated,  while  for  those 
belonging  to  the  educated  classes  there  would 
be  little  necessity  for  their  becoming  bread-win- 
ners, save,  perhaps,  as  teachers.  For  as  it  is 
customary  for  Turks  to  marry  young,  old  bache- 
lors being  almost  as  rare  as  old  maids,  all  native 
girls  would  naturally  marry  under  the  new  sys- 
tem as  they  have  done  under  the  old.  So  long, 
however,  as  Sultan  Abdul  Hamid  wears  the 
sword  of  Othman,  no  "  emancipation  "  of  his 
women  subjects  can  be  looked  for,  any  radical 
change  of  this  nature  being  entirely  foreign  to 
his  policy. 


CHAPTER  II 

LANDS  AND  DWELLINGS 

REAL  estate  in  Turkey  falls  into  three  cate- 
gories: freeholds  (mulk  or  memlouke ), 
Crown  lands  (mirie),  and  Church  lands  (va- 
kouf ).  Freehold  lands  are  the  absolute  property 
of  their  owner,  and  they  may  be  held  by  Christ- 
ians or  foreigners,  as  well  as  by  Osmanlis. 
They  do  not,  however,  form  a  large  proportion 
of  the  area  of  the  country,  owing  to  the  diffi- 
culties encountered  in  establishing  safe  titles,  as 
it  is  no  unusual  thing  in  Turkey  for  title-deeds 
to  be  forged,  destroyed,  or  otherwise  interfered 
with.  The  Crown  lands  include  the  private 
property  of  the  Sultan  and  his  family,  the  lands 
set  aside  for  the  support  of  the  administration, 
the  forests,  hill  pasturages,  and  waste  lands, 
together  with  the  very  considerable  area  origi- 
nally granted  as  military  fiefs,  which  reverted 
to  the  Crown  on  the  abolition  of  this  system 
of  land  tenure.  Portions  of  these  waste  lands 
are  allowed  to  be  reclaimed  by  the  peasants, 
who,  after  paying  tithes  on  the  produce  for 
19 


20  Turkish  Life 

twenty  years,  obtain  a  tapou,  or  title-deed,  from 
the  authorities  constituting  them  legal  owners. 
But,  although  nominally  safeguarded  by  special 
enactments,  and  placed  under  Government  super- 
vision, this  reclaiming  of  waste  lands  proves  a 
somewhat  hazardous  speculation,  leading  not 
infrequently  to  litigation  and  the  ruin  of  the 
squatter,  owing  to  the  corrupt  practices  of  the 
Tapou-memours,  or  Registrars,  who  generally 
settle  any  disputes  in  favour  of  the  claimant  with 
the  longest  purse.  The  holders  of  these  Crown 
lands  also  labour  under  the  disadvantage  of  not 
being  allowed  to  sell,  transfer,  or  mortgage  their 
estates  without  a  licence  from  the  authorities, 
nor  may  they  be  converted  into  vakouf  property 
without  express  permission  from  the  Sultan. 

Vakouf  lands  are  those  dedicated  to  Allah  — 
in  other  words,  those  whose  revenues  are  ap- 
plied to  the  support  of  religious  establishments, 
mosques,  and  the  charitable  institutions  gener- 
ally attached  to  them,  such  as  theological  col- 
leges, almshouses,  baths,  and  also  to  the 
maintenance  of  aqueducts  and  fountains.  No 
official  report  is  available  of  the  extent  of  these 
vakouf  lands,  but  it  is  estimated  at  as  much  as 
two  thirds  of  the  whole  area  of  the  country. 
Large  grants  of  land  were  made  at  the  Conquest, 
not  only  to  the  mosques  and  their  dependen- 
cies, but  also  to  the  monastic  establishments  of 
the  Dervishes,  who  accompanied  the  victorious 


Lands  and  Dwellings  21 

armies  into  the  battlefield,  and  private  muni- 
ficence has  constantly  added  to  the  original  en- 
dowments. For  the  piety,  as  well  as  the  vanity, 
of  Moslems  has  ever  incited  to  the  erection  and 
endowment  of  mosques  and  beneficent  institu- 
tions, in  the  one  case  as  a  religious  duty  well 
pleasing  to  Allah;  in  the  other,  as  the  surest 
method  of  obtaining  the  praise  of  neighbours  and 
of  posterity.  Such  acts  of  munificence  were 
formerly  frequent  on  the  part  of  private  individ- 
uals, though  in  more  recent  times  they  have 
been  practised  only  by  members  of  the  Imperial 
family  and  by  Grand  Viziers.  Church  lands 
have  also  been  very  largely  increased  from  a 
third  source.  As  these  estates  and  the  tenants 
living  on  them  enjoy  special  privileges,  a  Moslem 
freeholder, —  or,  for  that  matter,  a  Christian, — 
worried  by  tax-gatherers,  will  sell  his  land  to 
a  mosque  for  perhaps  one  tenth  of  its  real  value, 
retaining  the  right  of  hereditary  lease,  and  be- 
coming tenant  at  a  fixed  rent,  a  transaction  by 
which  both  he  and  the  "Dean  and  Chapter" 
are  the  gainers,  and  only  the  Government  and 
its  corrupt  officials  the  losers.  For  the  mosque 
receives  a  large  interest  for  its  trifling  invest- 
ment of  capital,  and  has  besides  the  reversion 
in  default  of  direct  heirs  to  the  vendor;  while 
the  tenant  on  vakonf  land  pays  no  taxes,  is  safe 
from  extortion  by  Government  officials  and  per- 
secution from  private  creditors. 


22  Turkish  Life 

Inheritance  and  partition  of  Crown  and  Church 
property  are  regulated  respectively  by  Imperial 
firmans,  or  permits,  and  the  special  ordinances 
of  ecclesiastical  laws;  but  freehold  land  falls 
within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  local  courts.  The 
laws  regarding  inheritance  in  Turkey  are  ex- 
ceedingly complicated,  and  their  complexity  is 
aggravated  by  the  admixture  of  the  Christian 
and  Moslem  elements,  and  by  the  three  differ- 
ent kinds  of  land  tenure  above  described.  The 
absence  of  any  law  or  custom  of  primogeniture, 
and  the  consequent  division  of  property  among 
all  the  children,  together  with  the  high  death- 
duties  on  landed  property,  tend  to  the  dimin- 
ution and  impoverishment  of  Turkish  estates, 
which  are  often  heavily  and  hopelessly  mort- 
gaged. Formerly,  almost  every  village  in  Tur- 
key had  its  own  common  and  forest,  in  which 
the  peasant  proprietors  had  the  right  to  cut 
wood,  burn  charcoal,  and  rent  the  pasturage 
annually  to  the  nomad  herdsmen  and  shep- 
herds—  a  great  resource  to  the  rural  popula- 
tion, though  most  destructive  to  the  forests. 
However,  all  this  was  changed  in  the  organisa- 
tion of  what  is  known  as  the  vilayet  system, 
when  the  forests  and  pasturages  were,  quite 
rightly,  placed  under  Government  supervision. 
For  though  the  laws  regulating  the  new  arrange- 
ment were  excellent  on  paper,  the  acts  of  in- 
justice and   the   abuses   connected    with   their 


Lands  and  Dwellings  23 

administration  have  proved  most  prejudicial  to 
the  rural  population. 

One  of  the  predominating  characteristics  of 
the  Osmanlis  is  their  instinctive  appreciation  of 
splendid  sites,  leafy  shades,  cool  fountains,  and 
wide  horizons.  This  passion  for  the  picturesque 
has  led  them,  wherever  they  have  settled,  to 
choose  for  their  abodes  the  most  charming  situa- 
tions, commanding  views  unrivalled  at  once  in 
grandeur  and  beauty.  Besides  peopling  almost 
exclusively  the  seven  hills  on  which  Stamboul, 
like  Rome,  is  built,  the  Turks  have  taken  pos- 
session of  many  a  fair  spot  on  the  shores  of 
the  Bosphorus  and  the  JEgean.  At  Smyrna  they 
inhabit  the  slopes  of  Mount  Pagus  below  the 
ruined  walls  of  the  ancient  citadel.  At  Broussa 
the  Turkish  quarter  climbs  the  steep  sides  of  the 
Bithynian  Olympus ;  and  at  Salonica  it  commands 
a  magnificent  panorama  of  mountain,  plain,  and 
landlocked  bay.  The  streets  of  a  Turkish  quar- 
ter are  consequently  for  the  most  part  steep,  and 
are  also  exceedingly  irregular,  often  unpaved, 
ankle-deep  in  dust  in  dry  weather,  and  running 
torrents  during  rain.  They  are,  however,  cleaner 
than  the  native  Christian  and  Jewish  quarters, 
owing  partly  to  the  presence  of  the  scavenger 
dogs,  and  also,  no  doubt,  to  the  greater  space  in 
the  courtyards  and  gardens  for  the  bestowal  of 
refuse.  For  in  provincial  towns  every  house, 
even  the  poorest,  has  its  own  courtyard,  if  not 


24  Turkish  Life 

garden,  and  its  overshadowing  mulberry,  plane, 
or  acacia  tree.  Each  dwelling,  too,  is  completely 
detached,  so  that  a  considerable  space  of  ground 
is  covered  by  a  comparatively  sparse  population. 
The  dwellings  of  the  artisans  and  working  classes 
generally,  differ  from  those  of  the  same  rank  be- 
longing to  other  nationalities  only  in  having  lat- 
ticed blinds  on  their  streetward  windows,  being 
two-storied  cottages  with  an  outside  staircase  and 
broad  landing  covered  by  the  pent  of  the  roof. 

The  abode  of  a  middle-class  family  is  much 
more  spacious.  It  is  generally  surrounded  on 
three  sides  by  garden  and  courtyard,  the  fourth 
abutting  on  the  street,  over  which  the  upper 
story  projects  about  two  feet.  The  walls  are 
often  coloured  a  deep  red,  which  contrasts  well 
with  the  unpainted  woodwork  of  the  windows 
and  latticed  screens  that  cover  two  thirds  of  the 
panes.  Tall  cypresses,  mulberry  trees,  and  aca- 
cias cast  broad  shadows  over  house  and  garden, 
and  under  them  blossom  in  luxuriant  confusion, 
little  disturbed  by  the  unmethodic  mind  of  an 
Oriental  gardener,  the  rose  and  jessamine,  orange 
and  pomegranate,  tuberose  and  carnation,  side 
by  side  with  the  leek  and  tomato,  brinjal  and 
melon,  cabbage  and  pumpkin.  Two  rooms  on 
the  ground  floor,  having  a  separate  entrance, 
constitute  the  selamlik,  in  which  the  husband 
receives  his  men  visitors,  and  the  rest  consists  of 
the  kitchen  and  offices.    The  upper  story  forms 


Lands  and  Dwellings  25 

the  haremlik,  or  private  apartments  of  the  family, 
to  which  no  men  visitors,  save  very  near  rela- 
tives, are  admitted,  and  its  furniture  consists 
chiefly  of  hard  divans,  carpets,  and  cushions. 

A  konak,  as  the  dwelling  of  a  family  of  position 
is  termed,  is  generally,  whether  in  town  or 
country,  a  somewhat  rambling,  irregularly  built 
edifice,  often  forming  two  entirely  separate  es- 
tablishments of  selamlik  and  haremlik,  connected 
by  a  corridor  known  as  the  mabeyn  —  an  Arabic 
word  signifying  a  space  between  two  objects. 
Some  of  the  older  honaks  on  the  banks  of  the 
Bosphorus  are  built  entirely  of  wood,  with  the 
exception,  perhaps,  of  the  marble  pillars  of  the 
facade,  which  have  probably  been  taken  from  the 
ruins  of  some  ancient  edifice;  and  the  overhang- 
ing upper  stories,  with  their  projections  and 
recesses,  their  elegant  kiosks  and  terraces,  their 
bright  colouring  and  verdant  setting,  present  a 
very  picturesque  appearance.  The  lattices  which 
guard  the  windows  of  the  haremliks  are  in  many 
cases  furnished  with  circular  openings  through 
which  the  hanums,  themselves  unseen,  may  gaze 
from  their  divans  on  the  ever-changing  scene  — 
caiques,  steamers,  and  ships  of  all  nations  borne 
on  the  swift,  deep  current.  A  towing-path  only 
a  few  feet  wide  separates  the  houses  from  this 
wonderful  waterway,  and  is  here  and  there 
raised  like  a  bridge  to  form  a  water-gate,  through 
which  the  caiques  reach  a  staircase  in  the  base- 


26  Turkish  Life 

ment  of  the  house.  The  larger  division,  occupied 
by  the  women,  contains  all  the  private  apartments 
of  the  family;  while  in  the  other,  in  which  the 
service  is  performed  entirely  by  men,  are  the 
rooms  used  by  the  EfTendi  or  Pasha  for  the  transac- 
tion of  business,  the  purposes  of  hospitality,  and 
formal  receptions.  The  key  of  the  door  leading 
to  the  selamlih  is  naturally  kept  by  the  EfTendi, 
who  alone  has  any  lawful  use  for  it;  while  a  kind 
of  buttery  hatch  in  the  form  of  a  revolving  cup- 
board in  the  party- wall  of  the  mabeyn  serves  for 
all  verbal  communication  between  the  personnel 
of  the  two  departments,  and  for  the  transmission 
of  provisions  to,  and  of  dishes  from,  the  harem 
kitchen  when  a  meal  is  to  be  served  therefrom  in 
the  selamlih. 

The  haremlih  has  besides,  of  course,  its  sepa- 
rate entrance  through  a  courtyard,  and  its  garden. 
Like  the  generality  of  Eastern  houses,  the  front 
door  opens  into  a  large  hall,  which  gives  access 
to  rooms  on  each  side,  and  has  several  windows 
at  the  opposite  end.  One  of  these  rooms  is  the 
kahveojak,  or  "coffee-hearth,"  where  a  shrivelled 
old  woman  may  always  be  found  presiding  over 
a  charcoal  brazier,  ready  to  boil  coffee  at  a  mo- 
ment's notice;  the  others  are  storerooms  and 
sleeping  apartments  for  the  inferior  slaves.  The 
kitchen,  which  is  very  spacious,  is  generally  an 
outbuilding.  One  side  of  it  is  occupied  by  the 
great  arched   cooking-stove  with  its  numerous 


Lands  and  Dwellings  27 

little  grates,  on  which  the  contents  of  brightly 
burnished  copper  pans  or  earthenware  vessels 
simmer  over  charcoal  fires,  fanned  by  a  negro 
woman  with  a  turkey's  wing.  A  wide  staircase 
leads  from  the  entrance  hall  to  the  upper  floor, 
the  centre  of  which  is  generally  occupied  by  a 
spacious  anteroom,  on  which  the  other  apart- 
ments open.  In  some  of  the  older  mansions  the 
divan-khane,  or  reception-room,  contains  a  large 
alcove,  the  floor  of  which  is  raised  about  a  foot 
above  the  level  of  the  rest  of  the  apartment.  A 
low  divan  furnishes  its  three  sides,  and  in  the 
most  comfortable  corner,  which  is  the  hanum's 
habitual  seat,  is  a  pile  of  flat  rectangular  and 
somewhat  hard  cushions,  and  here  may  also  be 
found  her  hand-mirror  and  chekmeje,  or  jewel-box. 
If  the  divan-khane  has  not  such  a  recess,  one  end 
and  half  the  two  adjoining  sides  of  the  room  are 
usually  occupied  by  a  continuous  sofa,  and  the 
fourth  wall  is  furnished  with  a  marble-topped 
console  table,  surmounted  by  a  mirror  and  can- 
delabra, and  flanked  on  either  side  by  shelves  in 
niches  containing  rosewater  sprinklers,  sherbet 
goblets,  and  other  objects  at  the  same  time  use- 
ful and  ornamental.  A  few  common  European 
chairs  stand  stiffly  against  the  wall  in  every  space 
left  vacant,  and  one  or  two  walnut  tray-stools, 
or  coffee-tables,  inlaid  with  mother  of  pearl,  are 
placed  near  the  divan  to  hold  ash-trays,  matches, 
and  other  trifles. 


28  Turkish  Life 

Bedsteads  are  not  used  by  the  Turks.  Each 
room  contains  a  large  cupboard,  built  into  the 
wall,  in  which  the  bedding  is  piled  during  the 
day,  and  at  night  the  slaves  come  in,  when  sum- 
moned, to  make  up  the  beds  on  the  floor.  Other 
bedroom  requisites,  in  the  shape  of  washstands, 
dressing-tables,  and  wardrobes,  are  dispensed 
with  as  superfluous.  For  every-day  ablution 
there  is  a  small  washing-room  with  a  hole  in  the 
floor  for  the  water  to  escape  through,  and  if  the 
hanum  would  wash  her  hands  and  face  only,  a 
slave  brings  the  ewer  and  basin,  and  pours  the 
water  over  her  hands.  For  special  ablutions, 
she  will  go  either  to  her  own  private  hammam, 
or  to  the  public  baths.  S#e  "does  her  hair,"  or 
has  it  done  for  her,  seated  cross-legged  in  her 
corner  of  the  divan;  and  the  old  walnut-wood 
chests  and  coffers  in  her  treasure-room  suffice  to 
store  her  gauzes  and  brocades,  her  silks  and  em- 
broideries. Here  also  may  often  be  found  price- 
less treasures  in  metal,  porcelain,  glass,  and 
gems,  which,  were  they  displayed  in  the  recep- 
tion-rooms, would  add  greatly  to  the  cheerfulness 
of  their  appearance.  But  such  is  not  the  prac- 
tice of  the  Osmanlis,  who  retain  in  many  of 
their  habits  the  characteristics  of  their  nomadic 
ancestors. 

All  Turkish  houses  are,  however,  constructed 
with  a  view  to  the  summer;  and  winter,  though 
in  the  north  of  Turkey  especially  often  severe, 


Lands  and  Dwellings 


seems  to  be  hardly  at  all  provided  against.  The 
walls  seem  to  be  all  windows,  and  the  arrange- 
ments for  heating  are  most  inadequate.  Very 
often  there  is  but  a  brazier,  in  the  form  of  a 
shallow  brass  or  copper  pan  containing  charcoal 
half  buried  in  wood  ashes,  and  placed  either  on 
an  elegantly  shaped  receptacle  of  wrought  metal, 
or  on  a  heavy  stand  of  polished  wood,  from 
two  to  three  feet  square,  and  about  eight  inches 
high,  which  occupies  the  centre  of  the  room. 
A  somewhat  curious  warming  apparatus  is  the 
tandour,  which,  though  fallen  into  disuse  in  the 
capital  and  in  the  European  provinces,  may  still  be 
seen  in  Asia  Minor,  even  in  the  houses  of  Euro- 
peans. It  consists  of  a  kind  of  four-legged 
square  table  made  of  deal,  having  a  shelf,  covered 
with  tin,  a  few  inches  from  the  foot,  in  the  centre 
of  which  is  placed  a  pan  of  charcoal  guarded  by 
a  metal  screen.  Over  all  is  thrown  a  large  thickly 
wadded  quilt,  which  the  ladies, — for  this  is  an 
eminently  feminine  luxury, — seated  on  two  sides 
of  the  iandour  in  the  angle  of  the  divan,  draw 
over  their  knees.  The  use  of  American  stoves 
is,  however,  increasing  every  year,  and  the  pic- 
turesqueness  of  many  of  the  old  konaks  is  de- 
stroyed by  the  hideous  black  stove-pipes  which 
emerge  from  the  windows  or  walls  and  climb  up 
to  the  roofs. 

Such  a  mansion  as  I  have  just  described  may 
be  found  in  every  provincial  town,  and  is  a  fair 


3<=>  Turkish  Life 

specimen  of  the  average  dwelling  of  a  Turkish 
family  of  good  position  even  in  the  capital  and 
its  suburbs,  if  they  do  not  happen  to  be  excep- 
tionally wealthy,  or  to  have  been  infected  with 
the  a  la  Franca  mania  for  imitating  European 
fashions.  There  are,  however,  in  the  capital  and 
its  suburbs  a  considerable  number  of  new  Turk- 
ish houses  handsomely  and  solidly  built,  and  in 
outward  appearance  not  to  be  distinguished  — 
except  by  the  latticed  blinds  at  the  windows 
— from  the  dwellings  of  Europeans. 

Native  costume  and  native  furniture,  however 
rich  and  varied  in  colour  and  material,  never 
offend  a  cultured  Western  eye  when  used  in  ac- 
cordance with  Oriental  customs,  as  evidenced  by 
the  varied  tints  to  be  found  in  Oriental  porcelains, 
textiles,  and  embroideries.  But  the  Oriental 
mind  generally  seems  to  get  confused  in  endeav- 
ouring to  assimilate  its  own  notions  of  magnifi- 
cence and  luxury  to  those  suggested  by  Western 
upholstery  and  French  fashions;  and  this  be- 
wilderment finds  expression  in  combinations  of 
material  and  colour  calculated  to  harrow  the  soul 
of  the  least  aesthetic.  Crimson  is  trimmed  with 
scarlet,  and  blue  with  violet,  shabby  chintz  hangs 
side  by  side  with  the  richest  brocade  and  velvet, 
and  a  glaring  German  hearthrug  in  the  worst 
possible  taste  may  be  found  spread  side  by  side 
with  a  priceless  Persian  carpet. 

An  indispensable  adjunct  of  a  native  house  of 


Lands  and  Dwellings  31 

any  importance  is  a  Turkish  bath,  of  course  on  a 
small  scale,  but  always  consisting,  like  the  pub- 
lic baths,  of  three  apartments,  one  within  the 
other.  Bathing  accommodation  of  some  kind 
may  indeed  be  found  in  every  Turkish  dwelling, 
even  if  it  is  but  a  tiny  cabinet  furnished  with  a 
drain  for  carrying  off  the  water.  Of  the  public 
baths,  which  are  resorted  to  by  all  classes,  sev- 
eral are  to  be  found  in  every  large  town,  and  in 
the  capital  they  are  very  numerous.  A  few  — 
the  mineral  baths  at  Broussa,  for  instance,  and 
some  of  the  older  ones  at  Stamboul  —  offer  fine 
examples  of  this  species  of  architecture,  and  are 
much  resorted  to  by  all  classes.  The  charges 
made  at  these  public  baths  are  extremely  moder- 
ate, and  for  the  use  of  the  poor  there  are  numer- 
ous others  attached  to  the  mosques  and  other 
pious  foundations  at  which  they  may  perform 
their  ablutions  gratuitously. 

Other  institutions  peculiar  to  Oriental  wayfar- 
ing and  commercial  life  are  the  bazaars  and 
khans.  The  former  term,  though  derived  from 
a  Turkish  word  signifying  "to  bargain,"  is  used 
by  the  Turks  to  denote  market-places  only,  such 
as  the  Baluk  Bazaar,  or  fish-market;  the  term 
Tcharshi  being  generally  applied  to  streets 
devoted  exclusively  to  the  sale  of  one  kind  of 
goods;  while  the  same  term,  or  Be^esten,  de- 
signates the  great  walled  and  roofed  enclosures 
which  constitute  the  chief  emporiums  of  retail 


3 2  Turkish  Life 

trade  in  the  East,  varying  in  size  and  archi- 
tectural merits  with  the  importance  of  the  town, 
of  which  they  usually  constitute  the  commercial 
centre.  The  most  familiar  examples  of  these  are 
the  Mis'r  Tcharshi,  or  Cairene  Bazaar,  and  the 
Be^esten,  or  Grand  Bazaar  of  Stamboul.  This 
Grand  Bazaar  forms,  as  it  were,  a  city  within 
a  city,  containing  arcaded  streets,  tortuous  and 
mysterious  lanes  and  alleys,  squares  and  fount- 
ains, all  enclosed  within  high  protecting  walls, 
and  covered  by  a  vaulted  roof,  studded  with 
hundreds  of  cupolas,  through  which  penetrates 
a  subdued  light  more  favourable,  it  must  be 
admitted,  to  the  vendor  than  to  the  pur- 
chaser. Here,  as  elsewhere,  each  commodity 
has  its  special  habitat.  In  one  quarter  are  found 
embroideries  in  gold  and  silver,  brocades  and 
damasks,  with  gauzes  of  silk,  cotton,  and  linen 
from  the  looms  of  Broussa;  in  another  are  dis- 
played specimens  of  all  the  rugs  and  carpets 
woven  in  nomad  tent,  in  village  hut,  and  in 
town  factory  between  Smyrna  and  Sarmarcand; 
while  in  a  third  the  jewellers  and  dealers  in 
pearls  and  precious  stones  conceal,  rather  than 
display,  in  diminutive  shops  their  valuable  stock- 
in-trade. 

The  khans  or  caravanserais,  though  supplying 
the  place  of  inns  or  hostelries,  have  little  in  com- 
mon with  such  in  the  European  acceptation  of 
the  term,  as  they  supply  neither  food  nor  at- 


Lands  and  Dwellings  33 

tendance  to  those  making  use  of  them.  The 
capital  contains  a  considerable  number  of  these 
edifices,  and  one  or  more  may  be  found  in  every 
large  town,  while  others  have  been  erected  at 
various  points  on  the  great  highways  of  the 
interior.  Not  a  few  of  these  hostelries  owe  their 
origin  to  the  munificence  of  the  pious,  this  pro- 
vision for  the  accommodation  of  the  weary  way- 
farer being  included  in  the  list  of  "good  works" 
required  of  Moslems.  Among  such  may  be 
mentioned  the  "Lady's  Khan"  on  the  road  be- 
tween Ioaninna  and  Mezzovo,  buit  by  the  widow 
of  a  famous  Suleiman  Pasha,  together  with  the 
beautiful  fountain  near  it,  and  the  Khan  of  the 
Valide  in  Stamboul,  adjoining  the  mosque  of 
that  name,  founded  by  the  able  regent  Tarkham 
Sultana,  mother  of  Mohammed  IV.  The  archi- 
tecture of  this  latter  vast  caravanserai,  which  is 
considered  a  sort  of  model  for  such  edifices,  is 
quite  conventual  in  character.  A  great  arched 
gateway  gives  access  to  a  quadrangle  containing 
a  tree-shaded  fountain,  and  surrounded  by  sta- 
bles and  storehouses  for  merchandise,  above 
which  extend  three  superimposed  cloistered  gal- 
leries on  which  open  all  the  cell-like  apartments. 
These  lodgings,  for  the  use  of  which  a  very 
trifling  charge  is  made,  contain  no  furniture,  as 
all  Oriental  travellers  carry  with  them  their  own 
bedding,  rugs,  and  utensils,  and  the  charge  made 
for   accommodation    is    correspondingly  small. 


34 


Turkish  Life 


The  further  wants  of  the  guests  are  easily  sup- 
plied at  the  coffee-stall  and  cook-shop  on  the 
premises,  or  in  the  numerous  establishments 
of  the  kind  with  which  the  neighbourhood 
abounds.  In  this  and  the  other  large  khans  at 
Stamboul,  Smyrna,  and  Salonica  may  be  found 
collected  a  motley  throng  of  strangers  —  Mos- 
lem, Christian,  and  Jew,  pilgrims  and  traders, 
from  every  part  of  the  Ottoman  Empire,  with 
their  merchandise,  their  donkeys  and  mules, 
horses  and  camels. 


CHAPTER  III 


TOWN  LIFE 


LIFE  in  the  capital  and  in  the  large  seaport 
cities  of  Smyrna  and  Salonica  presents  cer- 
tain aspects  not  discoverable  in  the  towns  of  the 
interior,  where  the  population,  though  mixed,  is 
of  a  less  cosmopolitan  character,  and  social  con- 
ditions generally  are  less  affected  by  European 
influence.  But  even  in  these  great  cities  the 
difference  so  far,  at  least,  as  the  vast  mass  of 
the  inhabitants,  and  especially  the  Turkish  section 
of  them,  are  concerned,  is  superficial  and  ex- 
ternal rather  than  essential.  For  all  the  various 
nationalities,  Moslem,  Christian,  and  Jewish,  of 
which  these  cosmopolitan  populations  are  made 
up,  live  in  separate  quarters  of  the  cities,  and 
their  members,  after  transacting  business  with 
each  other  during  the  day  —  honestly  or  other- 
wise, according  to  their  several  codes  of  com- 
mercial morality  —  retire  at  sunset  into  worlds 
totally  different,  and  divided  from  one  another 
by  impassable  barriers  of  language,  religion,  and 
tradition,  national  aspiration  and  social  custom ; 
35 


36  Turkish  Life 

the  life  and  thought  of  a  mere  fraction  only  of 
each  section  of  the  native  races  being  in  the  least 
influenced  by  those  of  the  foreigners  with  whom 
they  come  into  daily  contact.  Moslem  women 
and  girls  may,  for  instance,  occasionally  avail 
themselves  of  a  tramcar  when  on  an  expedition, 
but  the  car  itself  is,  in  deference  to  Turkish  pre- 
judice, divided  into  harem  and  selamlik,  the 
women  sitting  apart  from  the  men.  At  Smyrna 
and  Salonica  the  Turks  form  but  a  comparatively 
small  section  of  the  population.  In  the  capital, 
however,  the  Osmanlis  are  exceedingly  numer- 
ous, peopling  almost  the  whole  of  Stamboul,  as 
well  as  many  suburbs  on  both  sides  of  the  Bos- 
phorus;  and,  notwithstanding  the  heterogeneous 
character  of  its  inhabitants  generally,  one  can 
never  here  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  the  Turks 
are  the  ruling  race,  and  that  Constantinople  is 
the  capital  of  the  Moslem  world. 

The  upper  classes  of  Osmanli  society  at  the 
present  day  may  be  said  to  consist  almost  entirely 
of  the  families  of  Government  officials  and  mili- 
tary men,  as  there  seems  to  be  no  career  open  to 
a  Turkish  youth  of  good  family  but  the  army  or 
the  civil  service,  and  almost  every  member  of 
the  jeunesse  dorte  of  Stamboul  who  has  not 
selected  the  army  as  his  profession  looks  for- 
ward to  a  post  in  one  of  the  numerous  Govern- 
ment offices.  For  the  Turks,  generally  speaking, 
are  not  active  or  intelligent  as  business  men,  and 


Town  Life  37 

venture  little  into  speculative  commercial  trans- 
actions. One  never,  for  instance,  hears  of  them 
as  bankers  or  as  members  of  companies  formed 
for  working  mines,  constructing  railways,  or  any 
other  enterprise  involving  risk,  and  requiring 
for  its  success  business  capacity  as  understood 
in  the  West.  The  Osmanlis,  being  naturally 
of  a  lethargic  disposition,  and  finding  the  sub- 
ject nationalities  possessed  of  all  the  business 
qualities  in  which  they  are  themselves  deficient, 
have,  ever  since  the  Conquest,  fallen  into  the 
habit  of  using  their  subjects  as  tools,  who  acted, 
worked,  and  thought  for  them  in  an  irresponsible 
fashion;  and  thus  they  appear  to  have  finally  lost 
the  capacity  of  themselves  fulfilling  all  the  func- 
tions which  should  naturally  devolve  upon  a 
homogeneous  people. 

The  national  movements  among  the  subject 
races  of  Turkey  during  the  past  century  having 
inspired  the  Porte  with  a  general  distrust  of 
members  of  these  nationalities  as  State  officials, 
their  employment  in  such  capacities  has  yearly 
diminished,  and  at  the  present  day  there  are 
in  the  higher  Government  departments  more 
posts  filled  by  men  of  Turkish  descent  than  ever 
before.  The  country  has  nominally  a  Civil  Serv- 
ice entered  by  examination  from  the  Govern- 
ment colleges,  open  to  all  Turkish  subjects,  and 
offering  regular  promotion.  But,  like  many  other 
Turkish  institutions  of  recent  date,  it  is  merely 


38  Turkish  Life 

nominal,  and  all  appointments  are  made  by  a 
process  termed  hatir,  or  "favour,"  and  in  all 
important  cases  by  Palace  favour.  A  few  years 
ago  a  body  was  constituted  with  the  title  of 
M  Commission  for  the  Selection  of  Functionaries," 
but  it  has  never  been  allowed  to  do  more  than 
recommend  candidates  for  vacant  posts,  and  its 
recommendations  generally  receive  but  scant  at- 
tention. Posts  in  the  Government  service  are 
treated  as  objects  of  commercial  speculation,  and 
the  favourites  at  Yildiz  Kiosk,  whose  own  tenure 
of  office  is  always  precarious,  being  anxious  to 
make  hay  while  the  sun  shines,  find  it  to  their 
interest  not  only  to  sell  them  to  the  highest 
bidder,  but  to  sell  them  as  often  as  possible. 

The  Sublime  Porte  and  its  dependencies  have 
perhaps  larger  clerical  staffs  than  the  Govern- 
ments of  any  other  country,  but  admittance  to  a 
department  of  the  public  service  by  no  means 
implies  that  a  young  hopeful  enters  upon  regular 
duties  with  a  fixed  salary  and  expectation  of 
certain  future  promotion.  Things  are  not  man- 
aged in  such  prosaic  fashion  in  Turkey.  The 
bureau  to  which  he  is  attached  constitutes  for 
him,  at  the  outset,  at  least,  a  resort  of  the  nature 
of  a  club,  in  the  society  of  whose  members  he 
may  be  said  to  graduate  socially  while  waiting 
for  a  salaried  appointment.  Here  he  learns  to 
despise  the  costume  of  his  forefathers  and  to 
become  anxious  about  the  fit  of  a  frock  coat  cut 


Town  Life  39 

in  the  latest  Paris  fashion,  to  assume  the  airs  of  a 
man  about  town,  and  possibly  adds  to  the  cog- 
nomen of  Ali,  Achmet,  or  Mehmet,  which  has 
hitherto  served  to  identify  him,  another  appella- 
tion for  future  official  use.  The  heads  of  the 
various  State  departments  have,  of  course,  special 
functions,  which  they  perform  with  the  assist- 
ance of  such  among  their  subordinates  as  they 
may  think  proper  to  employ.  There  seems, 
however,  hardly  enough  work  to  go  round,  and 
a  considerable  number  of  the  aspirants  to  bureau- 
cratic employment  pass  their  time  during  office 
hours  in  smoking,  coffee-drinking,  and  gossip- 
ing. 

While  young  men  of  family  thus  aspire  to 
become  governors,  military  pashas,  aides-de- 
camp, or  secretaries,  those  of  less  distinguished 
birth  seek  employment  in  the  household  of  some 
official  of  high  rank,  taking  places  formerly  filled 
by  male  slaves,  such  as  coffee-maker,  pipe- 
bearer,  or  boot-cleaner;  and  from  the  eagerness 
displayed  for  this  kind  of  life  springs  one  of 
Turkey's  greatest  misfortunes,  every  holder  of  an 
important  office  being  hedged  around  by  succes- 
sive grades  of  parasitic  underlings  through  whom 
a  petitioner  for  justice  can  pass  only  with  one  key 
— bakshish.  Orientals,  it  may  here  be  remarked, 
do  not  look  upon  the  offering  and  acceptance 
of  bakshish  as  bribery.  For  under  the  present 
disorganised  and  corrupt  administration  officials 


40  Turkish  Life 

can  only  live  by  this  system,  to  live  on  their 
salaries  being  next  to  impossible  as,  in  the  first 
place,  they  are  generally  inadequate,  and  in  the 
second,  they  are  always  in  arrear.  There  is 
consequently,  even  for  the  most  honestly  dis- 
posed official,  no  method  of  keeping  body 
and  soul  together  and  rubbing  along,  save 
by  supplementing  the  meagre  remuneration  of 
the  Government  by  this  ancient  and  approved 
method.  This  want  of  punctuality  in  paying 
salaries,  or  wages,  is  characteristic  not  of  the 
Turks  only,  but  of  all  Orientals  generally.  Do- 
mestic servants,  for  instance,  are  engaged  at  a 
yearly  wage  and  are  fed  and  clothed  by  their 
employers.  Their  wages  are  not,  however,  paid 
to  them  at  any  stated  period,  but,  as  a  rule,  are 
allowed  to  accumulate  in  the  master's  hands  and 
are  only  drawn  on  leaving.  As  there  are  no  sav- 
ings banks  in  Turkey,  this  practice,  when  the 
employer  is  honest,  has,  no  doubt,  its  advantages. 
But  in  the  case  of  Government  employees  who 
have  themselves  and  their  families  to  support,  it 
often  entails  great  hardships,  and  I  have  person- 
ally known  officials  holding  the  rank  of  Pasha, 
with  large  nominal  salaries,  at  a  loss  how  to  pay 
their  butcher's  and  their  baker's  bills.  The  meth- 
ods of  the  Turkish  Paymaster-General's  office  are 
indeed  peculiar.  Both  salaries  and  other  claims 
are  paid  by  means  of  havales,  or  orders  on  the 
Imperial  Treasury.     After  much  petitioning,  an 


Town  Life  41 

official  may  receive  such  an  order  for  the  sum 
due  to  him,  or  part  of  it.  This  order  does  not, 
however,  bear  the  name  of  any  special  treasury, 
so  the  recipient  takes  it  to  a  saraf,  or  professional 
discounter,  from  whom  he  may  perhaps  receive 
a  third,  or  half,  its  value.  The  saraf,  the  pro- 
vincial governor  on  whose  treasury  it  is  made 
payable,  and  the  financial  authorities  of  the  pro- 
vince through  whose  hands  the  havale  must  pass 
before  final  payment  in  full  by  the  Treasury, 
make  their  own  profit  out  of  the  remaining  half, 
or  two  thirds,  of  the  sum  of  which  the  unfor- 
tunate official  is  thus  mulcted.  Stories  are,  of 
course,  rife  in  the  country,  and  especially  in  the 
capital,  of  enormous  bribes  being  received  and 
vast  sums  appropriated  by  dishonest  officials; 
but  somehow  no  one  seems  to  be  the  richer  for 
these  transactions.  Exaggeration  is  a  vice  pecul- 
iarly Oriental,  and  even  a  bakshish  running  into 
four  figures  does  not  amount  to  much  when 
perhaps  two  thirds  of  it  have  to  be  distributed 
among  subordinates  and  others  whose  secrecy  or 
goodwill  must  be  bought. 

Let  me  now  give  a  glance  at  the  nominal  seat 
of  Government,  at  which  are  found  the  bureaus 
in  which  all  these  various  functionaries  officiate — 
the  Sublime  Porte  and  the  Seraskierate,  or  Turk- 
ish War  Office.  The  hall  of  the  former,  which 
corresponds  to  the  u  Salle  des  pas  perdus  "  of  the 
French  Senate,  or  the  "Lobby"  of  our  House 


42  Turkish  Life 

of  Commons,  presents  a  curious  spectacle  to 
Western  eyes,  being  crowded  with  swarms  of 
petitioners  of  all  races  and  classes.  Among  the 
motley  throng  circulate  begging  Dervishes,  ca- 
fedjis,  itinerant  vendors  of  various  wares,  and 
perhaps  a  deli,  or  madman,  real  or  feigned, 
whose  sallies  serve  to  pass  the  hours  of  wait- 
ing. Matted  corridors,  along  which  the  humbler 
natives  glide  in  shoeless  feet,  lead  to  the  various 
bureaus,  the  doorways  of  which  are  screened  by 
hanging  carpets.  Within,  on  sofas  or  armchairs, 
covered  with  rich  stuffs  rubbed  to  shabbiness  by 
the  constant  friction  of  boots  and  shoes,  are 
seated  in  all  sorts  of  attitudes  a  dozen  or  so  of 
clerks.  In  front  of  each  is  a  little  stand  holding 
the  Turkish  inkstand,  sand-sifter — in  lieu  of  blot- 
ting-paper— kalems,  or  reed  pens,  ash-trays,  and, 
several  times  daily,  the  coffee-cup.  The  kyatib, 
when  he  happens  to  be  occupied,  holds  his  paper 
in  his  left  hand,  supported  on  his  upraised  knee, 
while  inscribing  on  it,  with  his  pen  held  verti- 
cally, the  graceful  Arabic  characters  used  by  the 
Turks.  Half  the  occupants  of  the  apartment 
seem  to  have  nothing  to  do,  and  sit  meditatively 
fingering  their  beads  by  the  hour,  unless  dis- 
tracted by  the  appearance  of  callers.  The  office 
of  the  head  of  a  department  presents,  however, 
a  more  varied  aspect.  There  is  a  perpetual  com- 
ing and  going.  The  portUre  is  raised  a  dozen 
times  an  hour,  and  visitors  or  petitioners  enter 


Town  Life  43 

unannounced,  salaam  to  the  great  man  from  the 
doorway,  salaam  again  on  approaching  him,  and 
a  third  time  before  taking  a  seat.  Etiquette  ne- 
cessitates the  interchange  of  polite  phrases  be- 
fore the  subject-matter  of  the  visit  is  entered 
upon,  thus  prolonging  every  interview,  and  it  is 
hardly  to  be  wondered  at  that  under  such  a  sys- 
tem an  army  of  functionaries  is  found  necessary 
to  transact  the  business  of  every  department. 
At  the  War  Office  the  plethora  of  officials  is 
even  more  remarkable;  at  the  Admiralty  some- 
what less  so — which,  considering  the  state  of 
the  Turkish  navy,  is  hardly  surprising;  while 
the  only  department  of  State  distinguished  by 
any  degree  of  order  and  imposing  gravity  is  the 
semi-ecclesiastical  one  presided  over  by  the 
Shekh-ul-Islam,  the  Ulema,  who  may  be  said 
to  compose  its  official  staff,  still  retaining  the 
dignified  appearance  and  manners  which  one  nat- 
urally associates  with  ample  turbans  and  patri- 
archal robes. 

There  is  at  the  present  day,  owing  to  political 
friction,  even  less  social  intercourse  than  for- 
merly between  the  Turks  and  their  Christian  sub- 
jects. Commercial  and  municipal  affairs  naturally 
bring  members  of  all  races  into  public  relations 
with  each  other,  and  ceremonial  visits  are  ex- 
changed on  the  occasions  of  their  national  festi- 
vals between  those  holding  official  positions.  In 
such  intercourse  there  is,  however,  no  mingling 


44  Turkish  Life 

of  the  sexes;  the  men  call  on  the  men,  and  the 
women  on  the  women.  The  Greek  communi- 
ties are  also  very  exclusive,  and  their  women  do 
not  speak  Turkish  as  do  the  generality  of  Armen- 
ians, whose  customs  and  modes  of  thought,  es- 
pecially in  the  towns  of  the  interior,  approximate 
more  nearly  to  those  of  the  ruling  race.  Osmanli 
men,  indeed,  manifest  little  taste  for  the  society 
of  the  native  Christian  women,  though  the  gen- 
erality of  the  better  class  in  Stamboul  eagerly 
avail  themselves  of  every  opportunity  of  making 
the  acquaintance  of  European  ladies.  A  certain 
class  of  Levantines  in  the  capital — concession 
hunters,  embassy  dragomans,  and  others — en- 
deavour for  their  own  purposes  to  curry  favour 
with  Turks  in  official  positions  by  introducing 
them  to  foreign  ladies  resident  in  or  visiting 
Constantinople.  Europeanised  Turks  also  fre- 
quent the  Pera  cafes  and  hotels,  and  cultivate  the 
acquaintance  of  foreigners  generally;  one  motive 
for  doing  so  being,  no  doubt,  that  only  thus  are 
they  able  to  keep  themselves  informed  of  current 
events,  home  or  foreign;  for  the  Turkish  Press 
Censor  confiscates  all  European  journals  contain- 
ing references  to  the  internal  affairs  of  Turkey, 
or  her  relations  with  the  Powers,  and  prohibits 
the  publication  in  the  native  Press  of  any  news 
of  practical  importance  to  the  Turkish  pub- 
lic. And  it  is  only,  therefore,  by  intercourse 
with  European  acquaintances,  who  receive  their 


Town  Life  45 

correspondence  and  newspapers  through  the 
medium  of  the  foreign  post-offices  —  English, 
French,  and  Austrian — that  an  intelligent  Turk 
is  enabled  to  obtain  a  knowledge  of  current 
political  events.  Of  late  years,  however,  the 
Sultan  has  manifested  his  disapproval  of  this  tend- 
ency to  frequent  foreign  society  on  the  part  of 
these  more  enlightened  Osmanlis,  nor  do  many 
at  the  present  day  consider  it  safe  to  make  it 
a  regular  practice.  The  extraordinary  interfer- 
ence by  the  police  and  the  Government  with  in- 
dividual liberty  has,  indeed,  made  Turkish  life  in 
the  capital  a  somewhat  gloomy  business.  The 
Sultan's  fear  of  conspiracies  prompts  the  most  ar- 
bitrary and  tyrannical  enactments  with  reference 
to  all  public  assemblies  whatever.  Race  meet- 
ings are  prohibited,  even  a  cricket  match  cannot 
be  held  without  special  permission  from  Yildiz 
Kiosk,  and  measures  are  taken  to  procure  the 
indefinite  "  postponement  "  of  even  private  balls 
to  which  Turkish  subjects  are  known  to  have 
received  invitations.  Government  spies  are 
everywhere — in  all  public  offices,  at  railway- 
stations  and  custom-houses,  in  the  bazaars  and 
markets,  on  steamboats,  in  coffee-houses,  and 
public  baths.  Even  the  hotels  frequented  by 
Europeans  are  not  safe  from  these  inquisitorial 
nuisances,  and  strangers  whose  business  in 
Constantinople  is  not  a  matter  of  public  know- 
ledge may,  in  addition  to   having  their  every 


46  Turkish  Life 

movement  watched,  and  their  every  spoken  word 
listened  to,  find  their  wardrobes  and  drawers 
ransacked  and  papers  abstracted  in  their  ab- 
sence from  their  rooms.  Nor  are  the  spies  em- 
ployed by  the  Porte  by  any  means  invariably 
of  Turkish  origin. 

In  such  a  heterogeneous  population  as  that  of 
Constantinople,  made  up  of  persons  of  all  na- 
tionalities and  persons  of  no  nationality,  there  are 
always  to  be  found  individuals,  from  hotel  serv- 
ants to  hotel  guests,  ready  to  do  any  underhand 
work  for  a  consideration.  Officials  are  spied  upon 
by  their  colleagues,  their  subordinates,  and  their 
domestics,  all  of  whom  may  be  sending  in,  to 
those  in  whose  pay  they  are,  reports  of  every  de- 
tail of  their  daily  doings.  It  is  inevitable  that 
such  informers,  in  their  desire  to  show  their  zeal, 
should  fabricate  accusations,  and  the  most  trivial 
episodes  be  construed  into  acts  of  a  suspicious 
nature.  A  spy,  too,  may  himself  be  under  sur- 
veillance, and  his  report  pass  through  his  sup- 
posed victim's  hands  on  its  way  to  headquarters. 
The  highest  functionaries  are  liable  to  be  sum- 
moned to  Yildiz  Kiosk  in  the  middle  of  the 
night,  and  interrogated  on  utterly  frivolous 
charges  by  persons  much  inferior  to  themselves 
in  rank;  and  any  one  who  should  venture  to 
oppose  this  regime  would  probably  find  his 
fortune,  and  perhaps  even  his  life,  imperilled. 
One  hears  harrowing  accounts  from  natives  of 


Town  Life  47 

chambers  of  torture,  midnight  executions,  and 
wholesale  drownings  in  the  Bosphorus;  but, 
though  the  Sultan  is  evidently  by  no  means 
scrupulous  in  his  methods,  some  allowance  must 
be  made  for  Oriental  exaggeration,  and  serious 
credence  cannot  invariably  be  given  to  such  sto- 
ries. It  cannot,  however,  be  denied  that  trage- 
dies have  certainly  been  perpetrated  during 
this  Turkish  Reign  of  Terror,  as  witnessed  to  by 

the  incident  of  M Pasha  and  his  son.     The 

latter,  accused  by  one  of  his  colleagues  in  the  of- 
fice of  the  Press  Censor  of  having  given  a  Russian 
journalist  information  regarding  the  state  of  the 
Sultan's  health,  was  arrested  at  night,  carried  off 
to  the  palace,  and  has  never  since  been  heard 
of.  Some  days  later  his  father  was  despatched 
to  Yemen,  an  exile  which,  to  a  man  of  his  age, 
was  equivalent  to  a  death-sentence.  There  does 
not,  however,  generally  speaking,  appear  to 
have  been  any  greater  mortality  among  public 
men  in  Turkey  of  recent  years  than  in  other 
European  countries,  nor  is  there  any  evidence 
that  the  obituary  list  has  been  swelled  by  poison- 
ings, or  even  that  those  who  are  suspected  of  lib- 
eral views  are  shorter-lived  than  other  subjects. 
Some  at  least  of  the  adventures  of  the  suspected 
persons  are,  indeed,  to  judge  from  current  stories, 
of  an  amusing  rather  than  a  tragic  character. 
One  of  these  may  serve  as  a  specimen.  A  cer- 
tain A Bey,  a  Foreign  Office  secretary,  was 


48  Turkish  Life 

one  day  summoned  to  appear  before  the  Chief 
of  Police,  who  charged  him  with  having  on  the 
preceding  day  held  in  a  cafe  a  seditious  con- 
versation with  an  Italian,  and  required  him  to 

repeat  what  had  passed  between  them.     A 

Bey  refused,  upon  which  the  Minister  repeated 
to  him  word  for  word  what  had  been  said — 
nothing  certainly  calculated  to  shake  a  throne  or 
upset  a  Ministry.  But  the  Stamboul  EfTendi  in- 
sisted that  Murad  EfTendi — the  ex-Sultan — had 
also  been  mentioned,  and  made  use  of  threats, 
promises,  and  entreaties  to  extract  a  confession 

to  this  effect.     This  proving  ineffectual,   A 

Bey  was  finally  despatched  under  escort  to  the 
palace,  locked  up  in  an  apartment  there,  and 
subjected  daily  to  fresh  interrogations.     Finally, 

it  was  hinted  by  his  inquisitor-general,   R 

Pasha,  that  a  confession  would  be  rewarded  by 
his  being  nominated  attache  to  the  Ottoman 
Embassy  in  London.  "  Excellency,"  exclaimed 
the  budding  diplomatist,  "to  obtain  that  much- 
coveted  post,  I  am  capable  of  lying  to  any  ex- 
tent!" a  reply  which  so  tickled  the  Pasha  that 

A Bey  on  the  following  day   obtained   his 

liberty,  together  with  a  purse  of  twenty  liras 
from  the  Sultan  by  way  of  solatium  for  his 
week's  detention — during  which  he  had,  how- 
ever, been  accommodated  in  a  luxurious  apart- 
ment, and  well  supplied  with  dainty  dishes  and 
exquisite  tobacco.      Murad  EfTendi,  imprisoned 


Town  Life  49 

in  his  palace  of  Tcheragan,  appears  to  be  the 
Sultan's  greatest  bugbear.  For  a  Turk  to  men- 
tion his  name  is  accounted  a  criminal  offence,  and 
any  European  venturing  to  do  so  in  public  finds 
himself  thereafter  under  unpleasant  police  sur- 
veillance. 

The  greatest  evil — because  the  most  far-reach- 
ing in  its  effects  on  the  nation  generally — of  the 
present  system  is  that  it  naturally  puts  an  end  to 
all  freedom  in  social  life,  to  all  liberty  of  speech, 
all  originality  and  initiative  in  practical  matters, 
and  all  political  and  intellectual  activity.  It  is  as 
if  an  Imperial  edict  had  gone  forth  to  this  effect: 
"Thou  shalt  not  do  anything,"  for  a  man  may 
not  rebuild  his  burnt-down  house,  or  give  an 
entertainment  to  celebrate  his  son's  wedding, 
according  to  time-honoured  custom,  without  his 
intentions  being  brought  to  the  notice  of  the  au- 
thorities; nor  may  anOsmanli  of  any  importance 
leave  the  capital  for  business  or  pleasure,  unless 
he  receives  an  hade  from  the  Sultan  authorising 
him  to  do  so,  and  such  permission  is  not  easily 
obtained.     When   taking  tea  not   long  ago  at 

the  Stamboul  residence  of  General  A Pasha, 

who,  in  his  capacity  of  aide-de-camp  to  the  Sul- 
tan, has  often  been  the  bearer  of  his  Imperial 
master's  congratulations  and  presents  to  the  vari- 
ous crowned  heads  of  Europe,  one  of  the  guests, 

M Bey,    a    handsome    and    well-educated 

young   Turk,   earnestly  begged   his   Excellency 


50  Turkish  Life 

to  nominate  him  as  his  private  secretary  on 
the  occasion  of  his  next  visit  to  England. 
" There  is  nothing,"  he  said,  "I  so  much  desire 
as  to  visit  Europe,  and  especially  Great  Britain, 
and  I  despair  of  ever  being  allowed  to  go,  Pasha 
EfTendi,  unless  you  thus  take  me  under  your 
friendly  wing."  The  Pasha,  I  may  mention, 
occupies  his  leisure  hours  with  landscape  paint- 
ing, for  which  he  displays  no  little  talent,  and 
his  reception-room  has  quite  the  appearance  of 
a  studio  with  its  large  flower-decorated  and  bal- 
conied window,  its  canvases  on  easels,  and  the 
sketches  and  framed  pictures  from  his  own  brush 
which  cover  every  inch  of  the  walls  not  occupied 
by  signed  portraits — photographs  and  prints  of 
members  of  all  the  royal  families  of  Europe,  of 
which  his  Excellency  is  much  prouder  than 
of  his  own  contributions  to  art.  The  end  wall 
of  his  dining-room,  which  is  furnished  in  Euro- 
pean style,  is  painted  in  semblance  of  an  orange 
grove,  in  the  midst  of  which  is  the  little  ablution- 
ary  fountain  and  basin  usually  seen  in  the  houses 
of  Mohammedans. 

The  above  details  of  social  life  refer  more  par- 
ticularly to  the  capital,  Smyrna,  and  Salonica, 
and  also,  to  a  certain  extent,  to  the  ancient  capital, 
Adrianople,  which,  since  its  connection  by  rail 
with  Western  and  Central  Europe,  now  presents 
many  features  in  common  with  the  large  seaport 
cities.     In  the  towns  of  the  interior,  however, 


Town  Life  51 

Turkish  influences  predominate,  and  the  man- 
ners, customs,  and  even  the  languages  of  the 
non-Turkish  element  are  considerably  affected 
by  those  of  the  ruling  race.  The  same  adminis- 
trative evils,  however,  exist,  though  on  a  smaller 
scale.  The  Konak,  or  Government  House,  forms 
the  centre  of  municipal  life,  and  not  only  the 
Governor,  but  even  the  inferior  officials,  have 
been  nominated  from  the  capital.  For  no  pro- 
vincial administrator  is  allowed  to  choose  his 
own  subordinates,  and  several  spies  are  sure  to 
be  selected  to  form  part  of  his  entourage.  The 
Konak  is  generally  a  many-windowed,  barrack- 
like edifice,  coloured  red  or  yellow  without, 
whitewashed  within,  and  approached  by  a  court- 
yard, at  the  gate  of  which  a  couple  of  stalwart 
Asiatic  soldiers  sit  on  rush-bottomed  stools. 
The  internal  arrangements  are  those  of  most 
Oriental  houses — a  wide  central  hall  or  corridor 
on  which  all  the  rooms  open,  the  upper  floor,  or 
floors,  being  precisely  similar.  Over  the  door- 
ways are  inscribed  the  names  of  the  various 
departments  as,  Secretary,  Treasurer,  Keeper  of 
Papers,  and  in  the  lobby  may  always  be  found 
during  office  hours  a  heterogeneous  collection 
of  litigants,  witnesses,  petitioners,  and  loafers, 
varying  in  race  according  to  province,  and  clad 
in  garments  denoting  every  degree  of  Eastern 
civilisation,  from  sheepskin  jacket  to  frock  coat. 
The  majority  of  these  frequenters  of  the  Konak 


52  Turkish  Life 

may  be  divided  into  two  classes:  those  who 
desire  to  gain  some  unfair  advantage  over  the 
others,  and  those  who  seek  to  avert  or  obtain 
redress  for  some  act  of  injustice  or  spoliation. 
Here  will  be  a  group  of  Turkish  peasants,  ragged 
but  dignified,  discussing  the  justice  of  a  sentence 
just  announced,  adverse  to  their  village,  and  in 
favour  of  the  beylikdji,  or  tax-farmer,  whose  de- 
mands they  have  appealed  against.  Leaving  the 
office  of  the  Tapou-memour,  or  Registrar,  is  a 
burly,  well-to-do  Bulgarian  peasant,  who,  by  dint 
of  persistent  bribery,  has  just  gotten  the  title- 
deeds  to  some  land  he  has  added  to  his  farm. 
Outside  the  door  of  another  office  wait  a  party 
of  Wallachian  flock  masters,  who  have  a  trian- 
gular dispute  with  the  forest  inspectors  and  the 
inhabitants  of  a  village,  both  parties  claiming 
rights  over  some  neighbouring  pasturages,  which 
the  shepherds  have  been  in  the  habit  of  renting 
from  the  former.  In  the  background  are  also 
probably  a  number  of  Greeks  and  Jews,  whose 
commercial  interests  have  come  into  conflict,  and 
among  the  throng  will  probably  be  a  Circassian 
horse-dealer  or  two,  an  Albanian  swash-buckler 
in  attendance  on  his  chief,  together  with  the 
usual  riff-raff  of  witnesses,  official  hangers-on, 
servants,  soldiers,  and  ^aptiehs.  Upstairs,  in  a 
large,  scantily  furnished  room,  the  Governor 
holds  his  court,  squatted,  if  an  "  old-fashioned  " 
Turk,  in  a  corner  of  the  divan  which  furnishes 


Town  Life  53 

three  sides  of  the  apartment.  Seated  with  him 
on  either  hand  are  a  number  of  individuals,  some 
in  turbans  and  flowing  robes,  others  in  the  con- 
ventional garb,  members  of  the  Medjliss,  or  Mu- 
nicipal Council,  local  magnates,  officials,  and 
others,  their  rank  being  easily  ascertainable  by 
their  proximity  to  the  great  man  and  the  degree 
of  ease  in  the  posture  they  assume.  The  Jewish 
doctor  sits  at  a  distance  on  the  extreme  edge  of 
the  divan,  with  his  hands  on  his  stomach,  speak- 
ing only  when  spoken  to,  and  then  with  a  defer- 
ential salaam.  The  Greek  dragoman  occupies  an 
uncomfortable  corner  of  his  rush-seated  chair 
near  the  door,  and  salaams  obsequiously,  rising 
every  time  the  Vali  opens  his  lips;  and  he  is 
served  by  the  barefooted  attendants  only  with 
coffee,  though  cigarettes  or  tchibouks  are  handed 
to  the  Kadi  and  other  magnates  seated  on  the 
great  man's  right  and  left. 

There  are  in  the  provinces  at  the  present  day 
no  Christians  holding  the  highest  official  posts, 
and  only  a  few  who  are  Mudirs — as  the  govern- 
ors of  small  boroughs  are  termed  —  and  the 
Moavins,  or  Christian  Vice-Governors,  who  first 
came  into  being  about  a  quarter  of  a  century 
ago,  and  whose  numbers  were  greatly  increased 
in  1896,  are  mere  dummies.  For  the  Porte  gen- 
erally displays  great  ingenuity  in  depriving  of  all 
practical  effect  the  "  reforms"  wrung  from  it  by 
European  pressure.     In  the  first  place,  care  is 


54  Turkish  Life 

taken  that  the  Moavin  appointed  to  a  particular 
district  is  not  only  destitute  of  all  local  influence, 
but  that  he  is  also  a  man  who  must  of  necessity 
be  obnoxious  on  religious  and  racial  grounds  to 
the  Christian  inhabitants,  a  Greek  being,  for  in- 
stance, installed  in  a  Bulgarian  district,  an  Ar- 
menian in  a  Greek,  and  a  Levantine  Roman 
Catholic  in  an  Armenian  centre.  Being  a  "  Vice"- 
Governor,  he  has  also  naturally  no  duties  to 
perform  when  the  Vali  or  Mutessarif  is  at  his 
post;  and  in  the  Governor's  absence  it  is  gen- 
erally discovered  that,  according  to  ancient  pre- 
cedent, the  next  in  rank  must  take  his  place. 
Rank,  in  official  circles,  being  an  extremely 
subtle  and  altogether  incomprehensible  entity, 
that  of  the  Moavin  is  naturally  discovered  to  be 
of  quite  an  inferior  order,  and  the  acting  Gov- 
ernorship will  be  bestowed  on  the  Defterdar, 
or  Accountant-General.  For  the  Turks  are  in 
the  habit  of  occasionally  reminding  their  Christ- 
ian subjects,  by  actions  if  not  by  words,  that 
though  they  may  be  superior  to  them  in  intel- 
lectual or  business  capacity,  they  are  still  but 
infidel  dogs  in  their  eyes.  And  as  a  native 
Christian  official  cannot  faithfully  serve  the  Turk- 
ish Government  without  being  disloyal  to  the 
traditions  and  aspirations  of  his  people,  the 
Osmanlis  are  not,  perhaps,  without  some  justifi- 
cation for  regarding  such  officials  with  distrust 
and  contempt.     And  so   little,  as  a  matter  of 


Town  Life  55 

fact,  are  functionaries  holding  the  position  of 
Moavin  in  the  habit  of  asserting  themselves,  that 
their  timidity  and  servility  have  gained  for  them 
in  the  country  the  sobriquet  of  Ewetdjis,  or 
"Yes  "-men. 

An  opportunity  was  afforded  me  some  years 
ago  of  studying  at  fairly  close  quarters  an  official 
of  this  type,  a  Greek  of  Constantinople,  who 
had  been  sent  as  Moavin  to  an  important  town 
in  Macedonia.  Soon  after  his  arrival,  political 
disturbances  on  the  Greek  frontier  were  antici- 
pated, and  this  traitor  to  his  nation  showed 
greater  anxiety  than  his  Turkish  colleagues  to 
discover  sympathisers  with  the  movement  among 
the  leading  Greek  families  of  the  city.  The 
Governor-General  at  that  time   was  a  certain 

N Pasha,  whose  chief  qualification  for  his 

exalted  post  was  the  fact  that  he  happened 
to  be  the  Sultan's  foster-brother,  his  Circassian 
mother,  a  woman  notorious  for  her  capacity  for 
intrigue,  having  for  many  years  exercised  great 
influence  in  the  Imperial  harem.  Conspicuous 
among  the  circle  of  sycophants  by  whom  the 
Pasha,  a  man  of  no  particular  ability,  was  sur- 
rounded was  a  renegade  French  adventurer, 
who  at  every  utterance  of  the  great  man  would 
obsequiously  ejaculate,  "  Prophete!"  The  Vice- 
Governor,  who  generally  accompanied  the  Vali 
as  one  of  his  suite  when  making  ceremonial  calls 
on  foreigners,  simply  grovelled  before  him,  and 


56  Turkish  Life 

obtained  as  the  reward  of  his  servility  certain 
privileges  of  precedence  in  the  Council  Chamber, 
including  a  seat  on  the  divan  in  close  proximity 
to  the  Pasha;  and  the  degree  of  estimation  in 
which  this  dignitary  was  held  was  forcibly  illus- 
trated by  a  little  incident  which  came  under  my 
notice.  When  calling  one  day  on  an  English 
lady,  her  little  boy  happened  to  be  present  in 
the  drawing-room,  and  the  Pasha  held  out  his 
hand  for  the  child  to  kiss,  according  to  Turkish 
custom.  Perfectly  aware  of  what  was  expected 
of  him,  the  boy  coloured,  hesitated  a  few  sec- 
onds, then  with  an  amusing  audacity  put  his 
hand  into  that  of  the  visitor  and  bowed.  When 
the  Vali  had  taken  his  departure,  the  lady  asked 
her  son  why  he  had  not  kissed  the  Pasha's  hand. 
"  I  would  not  disgrace  myself  by  kissing  the 
hand  of  that  Pasha!  "  was  the  little  man's  digni- 
fied reply. 

The  state  of  affairs  at  the  Konak  became  at 
length  something  of  a  scandal,  and  even  more 
scandalous  was  the  conduct  of  the  Pasha's  harem, 
though  he  had  but  one  wife,  a  Circassian  and 
an  ex-Seraili,  whom  the  Bey's  wives  refused  to 
visit.  As  the  political  situation  at  the  same 
time  called  for  the  appointment  of  a  mihtary 

rather    than   a   civil    Governor-General,   N 

Pasha  was  transferred  to  another  post,  and  in 

his  place  arrived  D Pasha  —  a  man  of  high 

military  rank  and  renown,  and  in  some  respects, 


Town  Life  57 

at  least,  a  Turk  of  the  old  school  —  and  took 
possession  of  the  Konak.  All  the  officials  nat- 
urally hastened  to  salute  him,  and  among  the 
rest  the  Moavin,  who,  having  made  before  him 
his  temend,  and  uttered  the  most  fulsomely  flat- 
tering phrases  of  which  he  was  master,  pro- 
ceeded to  seat  himself  in  his  accustomed  place. 

Seeing  his   intention,  D Pasha  turned  his 

keen  eyes  on  his  subordinate,  and,  without  a 
word,  pointed  to  the  extreme  end  of  the  divan, 
which  remained  thenceforward  the  distance  of 
the  crestfallen  Moavin  from  the  place  of  honour. 

The  population  of  country  towns  is  made  up 
of  local  Beys  and  other  magnates,  owners  of 
landed  property,  urban  and  agricultural,  shop- 
keepers, artisans,  and  labourers,  and  the  officers 
and  soldiers  of  the  garrison.  The  life  of  the 
townsfolk  is,  on  the  whole,  exceedingly  mono- 
tonous, and  varied  only  by  the  festivities  attend- 
ing family  ceremonies  and  the  recurrence  of  the 
annual  religious  festivals. 

The  public  baths  constitute  in  the  towns  the 
chief  meeting-place  for  both  sexes,  the  men's 
baths  being  open  in  the  evening  as  well  as 
in  the  daytime.  With  Moslems  personal  cleanli- 
ness certainly  comes  next  to  godliness,  being 
enjoined  by  the  Holy  Law,  and  to  their  regular 
and  careful  ablutions  —  and  also,  no  doubt,  to 
their  habitual  temperance  —  may  probably  be 
traced  the  comparative  freedom  of  the  Turks 


58  Turkish  Life 

from  many  of  the  ailments  which  afflict  their 
Christian  and  Jewish  neighbours.  Coffee  and 
tobacco  are  in  the  Western  mind  indissolubly 
associated  with  the  typical  Turk,  and  these 
luxuries,  despite  the  fulminations  hurled  against 
them  in  former  days  by  stern  and  ascetic  moral- 
ists, have  become  not  only  the  indispensable 
adjuncts  of  civility  and  hospitality,  but  almost 
the  necessaries  of  existence  for  the  inhabitants 
of  Turkey  generally,  of  all  ranks  and  creeds. 
The  patient  shopkeeper  in  the  bazaar  will  courte- 
ously invite  you  to  partake  of  a  fragrant  cup 
while  you  turn  over  and  inspect  his  wares  at 
your  leisure;  and  during  the  course  of  every 
business  transaction,  and  every  social  or  official 
interview,  coffee  and  cigarettes  seem  to  be  in- 
dispensable; and  so  much  coffee  and  so  many 
cigarettes  must  of  necessity  be  partaken  of  in 
the  course  of  a  day  that,  but  for  the  special 
method  of  preparation,  they  would  certainly  have 
most  injurious  consequences.  Coffee-houses  are 
consequently  to  be  met  with  everywhere,  in 
crowded  streets,  by  suburban  roadsides,  on 
boat-piers,  and  in  market-places,  wherever,  in  a 
word,  men  resort  for  business  or  relaxation. 

There  is,  perhaps,  hardly  a  town  in  Turkey 
which  does  not  possess  in  its  immediate 
neighbourhood  one  or  more  picturesque  spots, 
to  which  its  inhabitants  resort  on  feast-days 
and  holidays.     Many   such  exist  in  the  neigh- 


Town  Life  59 

bourhood  of  the  capital:  the  Sweet  Waters  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  Merdevenkeui,  and  numerous 
others  on  the  shores  of  the  Bosphorus;  and 
when  want  of  leisure,  or  piastres,  make  these 
inaccessible,  the  Turk  betakes  himself  content- 
edly to  the  nearest  cemetery,  where,  seated  on 
a  fallen  turbaned  tombstone  under  the  shade 
of  a  cypress,  he  enjoys  with  his  fellows  the 
amenities  of  conversation,  flavoured  with  a  cup 
of  coffee  and  narghile  supplied  from  the  little 
cafe,  sure  to  be  found  at  hand.  Turks  of  the 
lower  class  resort  to  the  kafene  in  the  early 
morning  for  a  cheering  cup  and  narghile  before 
betaking  themselves  to  their  daily  avocations, 
and  repair  to  them  again  at  intervals  during  the 
day  as  opportunity  may  offer.  Most  unpreten- 
tious, and  by  no  means  very  inviting  in  appear- 
ance, are  these  hafene's,  and  few  can  boast  of 
any  arrangements  for  the  comfort  of  those  who 
frequent  them.  The  best  are  furnished  only 
with  mats,  rugs,  and  cushions,  placed  on  a 
raised  platform  surrounding  the  interior.  Many 
are  mere  wooden  shanties  with  an  awning  or 
vine-covered  trellis,  in  front  of  or  under  which 
the  contemplative  Orientals  sit  contentedly  on 
rush-bottomed  stools,  a  cup  in  one  hand,  and  a 
stem  of  narghile'  or  tchibouh  in  the  other. 

Coffee-houses  gtnerally  in  the  East,  in  default 
of  clubs  or  ''Institutes,"  form  the  chief  centres 
of  union  and  conversation  for  the  middle  and 


60  Turkish  Life 

lower  classes.  Here  those  who  can  read  impart 
to  their  unlettered  neighbours  the  news  of  the 
day,  —  or  at  least  as  much  of  it  as  has  been 
approved  by  the  Press  Censor, — and  here,  too, 
in  the  absence  of  precise  information  with  refer- 
ence to  current  events,  the  wildest  theories  are 
started,  discussed,  and  circulated.  Hither  also 
resort  the  wandering  musicians  and  story-tellers, 
picturesque  figures  in  the  immemorial  costume 
of  their  profession  which,  with  its  repertory  of 
songs  and  stories,  is  handed  down  from  genera- 
tion to  generation.  The  hours  passed  in  these 
popular  resorts  are  also  beguiled  with  various 
sedentary  games,  such  as  draughts,  dominoes, 
and  backgammon.  Cards  are  seldom  resorted 
to,  games  of  hazard  being  forbidden  to  Moslems. 
Nor  can  gambling  be  said  to  be  at  all  a  popular 
vice  in  the  country,  the  stakes  played  for  by 
Christians  seldom  rising  above  the  price  of  a 
glass  of  raki,  or  a  rahat-louhoum.  Dancing,  it 
may  here  be  remarked,  though  a  favourite  recre- 
ation, not  only  of  all  the  Christian  nationalities, 
but  also  of  the  Albanians,  Kurds,  and  other  races 
professing  the  creed  of  Islam,  is  not  indulged 
in  by  the  Turks  personally,  who  consider  such 
exercises  beneath  their  dignity,  and  prefer  to 
see  slaves  and  Gipsy  women  dance  for  their 
amusement. 

Of  the   manly  sports  at   which   the  ancient 
Osmanlis,  from  Sultans  downwards,  were  once 


Town  Life  61 

so  expert,  archery,  wielding  the  mace,  tennis, 
quoits,  wrestling,  and  throwing  the  djereed,  only 
the  last  two  are  to  be  witnessed  at  the  present 
day.  Wrestling  is  a  popular  pastime  with  all 
nationalities  and  creeds,  and  Turk,  Greek,  and 
Bulgarian,  Armenian,  Kurd,  and  Gipsy  freely 
enter  the  lists  against  each  other,  continuing  the 
contest  for  hours,  untiringly  watched  by  a  large 
crowd  of  undemonstrative  but  deeply  interested 
and  critical  spectators.  The  game  of  djereed 
is  more  exciting,  and,  I  believe,  peculiar  to  Asia 
Minor,  the  land  par  excellence  of  legendary 
champions  and  "deeds  of  derring-do"  cele- 
brated in  ballad  and  story  —  at  least  1  have  never 
seen  or  heard  of  it  in  European  Turkey.  It  is 
played  on  horseback,  and  affords  opportunities 
for  the  display  of  all  those  tricks  of  horseman- 
ship on  which  Osmanli  youths  pride  themselves. 
A  number  of  players,  perhaps  twenty  on  each 
side,  armed  with  long,  heavy  sticks,  take  up 
positions  about  fifty  yards  from  each  other  on 
some  open  space,  preferably  near  some  rising 
ground  from  which  the  game  can  be  watched 
without  danger  to  the  spectators.  One  of  the 
horsemen  dashes  forward  and  hurls  his  djereed 
at  an  opponent,  who  endeavours  to  intercept 
him  before  he  can  return  to  his  place.  It  is  then 
the  turn  of  the  other  side.  Sometimes  a  player 
mounted  on  an  exceptionally  swift  horse  will, 
instead    of   returning    to    his    place,    create    a 


62  Turkish  Life 

diversion  by  riding  off  to  a  distance  after  making 
his  throw,  when  several  of  the  other  side  pursue 
him  and  endeavour  to  overtake  him.  A  player 
who  has  got  rid  of  all  his  sticks  is  at  liberty  to 
appropriate  any  found  lying  on  the  ground, 
which  he  does  without  dismounting,  often 
dexterously  bending  down  and  snatching  up 
a  djereed  as  his  steed  gallops  past  it.  The  rules 
of  the  game  are  strictly  observed,  and  no  un- 
fairness or  unnecessary  roughness  is  permitted. 
The  sticks,  which  should  not  be  aimed  at  the 
head  of  an  opponent,  may  be  dodged  by  any  of 
the  expedients  at  the  command  of  expert  horse- 
men, some  appearing  to  leave  their  saddles 
when  ducking  to  avoid  a  flying  djereed.  As  is 
inevitable  in  a  game  of  this  description,  there 
are  frequent  mishaps  and  collisions,  and  horses 
and  men  struggle  together  on  the  ground  in 
dangerous  confusion. 

In  a  country  so  destitute  of  good  roads  and 
streets  as  Turkey,  locomotion  is  naturally  per- 
formed chiefly  on  horse-,  mule-,  and  donkey- 
back.  At  various  points  in  Constantinople, 
Smyrna,  and  other  towns,  one  may  see  a  num- 
ber of  these  animals,  furnished  with  saddlery 
more  or  less  Orientally  ornate  in  character, 
waiting  for  hire.  This  method  of  locomotion  is 
also,  especially  in  the  interior,  much  resorted  to 
by  Turkish  women,  who,  seated  astride  on  the 
high  carpet-  or  pack-saddles   with  their  white- 


Town  Life  63 

stockinged,  yellow-slippered  feet  thrust  into 
roomy  shovel-stirrups,  look  like  animated  bundles 
of  bedding.  In  addition  to  being  splendid  horse- 
men, the  Turks  seem  also  to  possess  great  skill 
as  drivers.  Many  of  the  streets  in  Constantinople 
and  the  suburbs  are  exceedingly  steep,  and  the 
roadways  are  generally  ill-paved,  full  of  holes,' 
and  slope  towards  the  gutter  in  the  centre.  But 
up  or  down  the  worst  paved  and  steepest  of 
these  thoroughfares  the  native  Jehu  will  not 
hesitate  to  drive  his  brakeless  fly  and  pair,  nor 
will  he  allow  his  fares  to  alight  and  walk  while 
the  willing  horses  are  struggling,  mostly  on  their 
haunches,  down  what  appears  to  those  behind 
them  a  declivity  the  foot  of  which  can  hardly  be 
reached  without  mishap.  "Carriage  exercise" 
is,  indeed,  in  Constantinople,  too  frequently  the 
most  active  exercise  imaginable. 

An  important  and  interesting  feature  of  urban 
industrial  life  in  Turkey  is  presented  by  the 
Esnafs,  or  guilds,  in  which  members  of  the 
various  trades,  crafts,  and  callings  are  enrolled, 
irrespective  of  race  and  religion,  for  their  mutual 
protection  and  support.  Though  many  once- 
flourishing  industries  disappeared,  and  others 
lost  their  former  importance,  on  the  abandon- 
ment of  the  ancient  Oriental  splendour  of  Court 
and  official  dress  and  equipment,  and  the 
adoption  of  Western  military  uniforms  and 
weapons  of  warfare  which  have  distinguished 


64  Turkish  Life 

the  nineteenth  century,  these  trade-guilds  are  still 
very  numerous,  and  especially  at  Constantinople, 
where  representatives  of  all  the  various  crafts 
and  callings  practised  in  the  Empire  are  to  be 
found,  having  one  or  more  Lonj'as  (lodges  or 
clubs)  in  every  quarter  of  the  city  and  suburbs. 
Each  Esnaf  is  presided  over  by  several  officers 
called  respectively,  according  to  their  rank, 
Shekhs,  Naibs,  Oustas,  and  Kiayas,  or  presi- 
dents, vice-presidents,  superintendents,  and 
inspectors,  who  are  annually  elected  by  the 
members  from  among  its  own  master-crafts- 
men, these  officers  being  formally  recognised  by 
the  Government,  which  holds  them  responsible 
for  the  good  behaviour  of  their  fellow-guildsmen. 
Some  Esnafs  possess  considerable  revenues,  and 
a  few  enjoy  peculiar  privileges  granted  by  royal 
charter  in  bygone  centuries  in  return  for  services 
rendered  at  some  important  crisis.  Among  these 
are  the  shoemakers,  who,  it  is  said,  have  special 
officers  empowered  to  judge  and  punish  all 
offenders  belonging  to  their  fraternity  without 
the  interposition  of  the  legal  authorities,  this  ex- 
traordinary privilege  having  been  conferred  upon 
them  in  the  sixteenth  century  by  Suleiman  II., 
the  Magnificent. 

The  tchiraks,  or  apprentices  to  the  various 
trades,  are,  when  proficient,  recommended  by 
the  master  under  whom  they  have  served  their 
time  to  admission  to  the  guild  of  their  craft,  into 


Town  Life  65 

which  they  are  formally  admitted  on  engaging 
to  observe  its  rules  and  paying  the  customary 
fee.  Some  guilds  are  composed  entirely  of  Mos- 
lems, as  certain  callings  are  exclusively  in  the 
hands  of  the  ruling  race,  others  entirely  of 
Christians.  Many,  however,  include  adherents 
of  both  creeds,  and,  as  members  of  the  same 
Esnaf,  Christians  and  Moslems,  allied  by  an 
esprit  de  corps  and  by  trade  interests,  pull  to- 
gether much  better  and  evince  mutually  a  greater 
liberality  of  feeling  than  is  generally  displayed 
in  the  social  relations  of  Turks  and  Christians. 
Once  a  year  each  Esnaf  gives  a  picnic,  usually 
on  the  feast  of  its  patron  saint,  the  expenses  of 
which  are  defrayed  either  by  subscription  or 
from  the  common  fund.  To  the  substantial  and 
even  sumptuous  repast  provided  on  such  occa- 
sions are  invited  not  only  friends  of  members 
of  the  guild,  irrespective  of  creed,  but  also  any 
strangers  who  may  happen  to  pass  the  spot 
chosen  for  the  festivities;  and  they  are  hospitably 
entertained  by  the  revellers.  The  amusements 
indulged  in  after  the  conclusion  of  the  midday 
repast  include  a  variety  of  juggling  and  acrobatic 
performances,  wrestling  matches,  and  for  the 
Christians  and  Albanians  their  national  dances; 
during  the  execution  of  which  their  Turkish  fel- 
low-craftsmen, seated  on  rush-bottomed  stools, 
in  front  of  a  rustic  coffee-house,  one  hand  occu- 
pied with  the  beads  of  their  rosary,  and  the  other 


66  Turkish  Life 

with  a  long-stemmed  tchibouk,  or  bubbling 
narghiU,  enjoy  their  kaif  in  more  passive  fash- 
ion. Disputes  are  of  rare  occurrence  at  these 
al  fresco  gatherings,  and  the  greatest  harmony 
prevails.  "Strict,  stern,  stony  decorum  "  is,  ac- 
cording to  a  recent  traveller  in  Turkey,  "the 
keynote  to  all  Turkish  fetes."  And  certainly  a 
total  absence  of  anything  approaching  to  vul- 
garity or  rowdyism  is  noticeable  in  Oriental 
merry-makings  generally,  whatever  the  class  of 
those  who  participate  in  them. 

Every  Esnaf  has  its  own  special  traditional 
laws  and  usages,  which  are  not  less  binding  than 
its  kanoun,  or  written  constitution;  and  the 
social  customs  and  mode  of  life  of  their  mem- 
bers afford  in  many  instances  curious  and  inter- 
esting illustrations  of  native  manners  among  the 
labouring  classes.  Of  these  the  boatmen  may 
be  instanced — naturally  a  very  numerous  body 
in  so  water-girt  a  city  as  Constantinople.  The 
ranks  of  this  Esnaf  are  largely  recruited  among 
the  Christian  and  Moslem  youths,  who  come  in 
great  numbers  from  Asia  Minor  to  seek  their 
fortune  in  the  capital.  Half  a  dozen  or  more  of 
these  bekiars,  or  "bachelors,"  as  they  are  termed, 
live  in  common  in  some  humble  lodging,  paying 
a  fixed  sum  per  day  or  per  week  to  an  old  man 
who  acts  as  their  steward  and  cook,  as  well  as 
their  counsellor  and  arbiter  in  the  disputes  that 
may  be  expected  to  arise  occasionally  in  such 


Town  Life  67 

a  mixed  household.  Their  relations  with  the 
masttr-kaikdji,  to  whom  they  serve  a  long  ap- 
prenticeship, are  also  of  quite  a  filial  character. 
The  boatmen  attached  to  the  service  of  the  royal 
palaces,  a  splendidly  muscular  set  of  fellows, 
with  shaven  polls,  are  attired  only  in  short,  full 
white  Turkish  breeches,  and  shirts  of  Broussa 
gauze,  which,  worn  open  in  front,  leave  their 
broad,  brawny  chests  exposed  to  the  weather. 
A  crew  of  about  a  dozen  propel  the  State  kaiks — 
lightly  built,  double-prowed  crafts,  some  twenty 
feet  long  and  three  to  four  feet  wide — at  a  splen- 
did pace  from  one  shore  of  the  Bosphorus  to  the 
other,  a  mode  of  traversing  this  wonderful  water- 
way which  may  be  enjoyed  by  Europeans  who 
have  obtained  the  firman,  or  permission,  requisite 
for  visiting  the  Imperial  palaces. 

Many  other  callings  the  exercise  of  which  re- 
quires muscle  rather  than  skill  —  that,  for  instance, 
of  the  hamal,  or  porter  —  are  organised  on  similar 
lines.  And  having  after  some  half-dozen  years 
of  combined  toil  and  thrift  amassed  a  little  capi- 
tal, the  majority  of  these  Savoyards  of  the  East 
return  to  their  native  villages  in  Anatolia  to  turn 
it  to  account  in  other  pursuits. 

Another  important  industrial  community  pecu- 
liar to  Constantinople  is  that  of  the  Sakas,  who 
supply  the  inhabitants  with  drinking-water  from 
the  more  famous  fountains  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
capital,    some   of  which  are  at  a  considerable 


68  Turkish  Life 

distance.  The  water  is  carried  in  great  leath- 
ern ''jacks,"  on  the  backs  either  of  horses  or 
of  men,  according  to  the  distance  from  which  it 
is  brought  to  the  houses  of  customers.  Another 
class  of  Sakas  are  employed  by  pious  persons  to 
carry  water  into  much-frequented  thoroughfares 
for  the  benefit  of  the  thirsty  public,  who  are 
invited  to  drink  it  "in  remembrance  of  the  mar- 
tyrs of  Kerbela,"  or  "To  the  health  of  Hasan 
and  Hosian  "  (the  said  martyrs).  Others,  again, 
offer  the  welcome  draught  with  the  words,  "  We 
give  thee  to  drink  of  Kevser! "  (the  River  of  Life 
in  Moslem  legend).  These  Sakas  often,  in  hot 
weather,  cover  up  the  receptacle  in  which  they 
carry  the  water  with  green  leaves  and  branches, 
and  some  have  an  arrangement  of  pipes  and  taps 
by  means  of  which  it  can  be  drawn  off  with 
ease  into  glasses  fitted  into  a  kind  of  tray  strapped 
round  the  waist. 

The  distribution  of  water  being  accounted  by 
Mohammedans  as  one  of  the  most  important 
among  the  "good  works"  which  form  such  an 
integral  part  of  their  religion,  the  Sakas,  Christ- 
ian as  well  as  Moslem,  enjoy  a  high  degree  of 
popular  consideration,  their  persons  being  re- 
garded as  in  a  manner  sacred,  and  any  offence 
offered  to  a  member  of  this  fraternity  is  looked 
upon  as  an  insult  to  the  whole  mahallah,  or 
quarter  in  which  he  resides.  Previous  to  the 
suppression  of  the  Janissaries  in  1826,  the  office 


Town  Life  69 

of  President  of  this  Esnaf  in  the  capital  was 
usually  held  by  the  colonel  commanding  the 
water-carriers  of  that  redoubtable  corps. 

Though  in  all  probability  the  Turks  found  the 
majority  of  these  guilds  already  long  established 
among  the  Greek,  Venetian,  Genoese,  and  other 
Christian  nationalities  inhabiting  Constantinople 
and  the  other  great  cities  of  the  Levant,  they 
assign  to  them  an  Oriental  and  probably  much 
more  ancient  origin  than  can  be  historically 
verified.  The  merchants,  for  instance,  maintain 
that  their  Esnaf  was  incorporated  in  the  lifetime 
of  the  Prophet,  who  himself  followed  the  calling 
of  a  trader,  and  thus  became  the  patron  of  mer- 
chants. For,  as  with  the  guilds  of  Western 
Europe,  every  trade  has  its  own  patron  saint, 
the  majority  of  them  being  the  prophets  and 
holy  men  who  figure  alike  in  the  Old  Testament 
and  the  Koran,  each  of  whom,  according  to 
Moslem  tradition,  invented  or  excelled  in  the 
craft  or  calling  placed  under  his  protection. 
Thus  Adam,  besides  being  the  patron  of  the  tail- 
ors' guild,  is  also  that  of  the  bakers' ;  and  among 
other  patron  saints  of  Esnafs,  Abraham,  as  the 
builder  of  the  holy  Kaaba  at  Mekka,  is  the  pro- 
tector of  the  builders,  Cain  of  the  sextons,  and 
also  of  all  those  who  shed  blood  in  their  callings, 
Enoch  of  the  scribes,  Noah  of  the  shipbuilders, 
David  of  armourers  and  smiths  generally,  Joseph 
of  the  watch  and  clock-makers,  and  the  Seven 


7°  Turkish  Life 

Sleepers  of  Ephesus  —  who  are  included  by  the 
Moslems  in  the  roll  of  holy  men  —  watch,  some- 
what paradoxically,  together  with  Jonah,  over 
the  sailors,  especially  those  who  navigate  the 
Black  Sea.  The  more  eminent  among  the  "  Com- 
panions of  the  Prophet "  also  afford  their  pro- 
tection to  numerous  guilds, — Selman,  one  of  the 
two  to  whom  the  Prophet  promised  a  greet- 
ing in  Paradise,  being  the  patron  of  the  barbers, 
as  it  was  his  privilege  to  shave  the  servant  of 
Allah. 

Equally  characteristic  of  industrial  life  in  Turkey 
are  the  strict  specialisation  of  each  particular 
branch  of  commerce  and  industry  and  the  ab- 
sence of  the  middleman  in  the  generality  of 
transactions  connected  with  supplying  the  neces- 
saries of  life.  Save  in  the  European  quarters  of 
the  capital,  there  are  as  yet  no  great  "stores" 
or  general  shops  in  which  goods  of  every  kind 
are  collected;  and  the  native  requiring  a  pair  of 
shoes  goes  to  the  working  shoemaker  for  them, 
and  a  housewife  in  want  of  a  new  saucepan,  ket- 
tle, or  coffee-pot  sends  her  husband  or  servant 
to  the  street  of  the  bakirdjiler,  or  coppersmiths, 
where  amid  the  deafening  tap-tap  of  a  hundred 
hammers  on  the  resounding  metal  he  makes  his 
selection,  and,  the  requisite  amount  of  chaffering 
accomplished  and  the  "last  price"  paid,  carries 
off  the  purchase.  For  in  Turkey,  it  may  be  men- 
tioned, it  is  not  customary  for  tradesmen  to  send 


Town  Life  71 

goods  home,  nor  —  save,  perhaps,  in  the  case 
of  sweetmeats  —  even  to  wrap  their  wares  in 
paper.  The  Oriental  deposits  his  purchase  in  a 
handkerchief,  bundle-wrap,  or  basket,  according 
to  its  nature,  and  if  he  or  she  can  afford  to  be 
proud,  a  servant  accompanies  to  carry  it  home. 
Cumbrous  or  weighty  articles  are  usually  carried 
by  hernials,  whose  sturdy  legs  seem  capable  of 
supporting  anything  that  can  be  fastened  on 
their  back-pads  —  from  a  cask  of  oil  or  wine  to  a 
wardrobe.  Nowhere  else  in  the  world,  perhaps, 
is  itinerant  trade  carried  on  to  the  extent  notice- 
able in  Constantinople,  where  almost  every  arti- 
cle of  food  is  hawked  or  exposed  for  sale  in  the 
public  thoroughfares.  Even  the  courtyards  of 
the  mosques  are  invaded  by  the  "  thousands 
of  people  who  gain  a  living  by  selling  all  sorts  of 
things"  —  vendors  of  fruits,  drinks,  sweets,  and 
small  wares,  who  set  up  their  stalls,  or  tripods 
and  circular  trays,  under  the  shade  of  large 
white  umbrella-shaped  awnings.  To  this  facility 
for  carrying  on  petty  commerce  may,  no  doubt, 
be  attributed  in  some  degree  the  absence  of  a 
pauper  class,  for  any  man  with  a  shilling  of  capi- 
tal seems  able  to  turn  a  sufficiency  of  honest 
pennies  daily  to  provide  himself  and  his  family 
with  the  necessaries  of  life.  The  stock-in-trade 
of  an  itinerant  cafedji  consists  of  but  a  few  cups 
and  glasses,  a  brazier,  and  one  or  two  tiny  coffee 
ibriks ;  and  half  a  dozen  such  may  apparently, 


72  Turkish  Life 

without  any  unfriendly  rivalry,  eke  out  a  living 
on  some  favourite  lounging-place  in  a  frequented 
part  of  the  city.  After  visiting  recently  the  beauti- 
ful Bayazidieh  Mosque  in  Stamboul,  my  friends 
and  I  took  our  seats  on  some  rush-bottomed 
stools  at  its  northern  entrance,  and  called  for 
coffee  to  a  Turk  standing  half  a  dozen  yards 
away,  whose  cotton  handkerchief,  tucked  apron- 
wise  into  his  girdle,  denoted  his  calling.  He, 
however,  courteously  informed  us  that  his  do- 
main did  not  extend  to  the  steps  of  the  mosque. 
A  second  cafidji,  who  then  came  up,  also  smil- 
ingly explained  that  only  the  stools  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  doorway  belonged  to  him. 

Another  noteworthy  characteristic  of  Turkish 
town  life  is  its  extreme  sobriety  and  consequent 
orderliness.  Notwithstanding  the  mixture  of 
races  and  the  scarcity  of  policemen,  street  brawls 
or  disturbances  of  any  kind  are  of  rare  occur- 
rence, and  Greeks,  Jews,  or  foreign  sailors  are 
usually  responsible  for  them;  foot-passengers 
make  way  for  each  other  in  the  narrow  streets 
with  extreme  good  nature,  and  mutual  compli- 
ments; the  heavily  laden  hernial  or  the  driver  of 
cart  or  carriage  utters  continually  his  warning 
cry  of  "  Varda!  "  and  there  is  little  of  the  coarse- 
ness and  vulgar  brutality  common  in  Western 
cities.  The  conditions  of  public  safety,  how- 
ever, vary  greatly,  according  to  locality.  In  Asia- 
tic Smyrna,  for  instance,  and  also,  to  a  certain 


Town  Life  73 

extent,  in  Constantinople,  foreign  ladies  may 
with  perfect  safety  traverse  the  streets,  or  travel 
in  the  Bosphorus  steamers;  but  in  European  Sa- 
lonica,  even  under  normal  conditions,  no  lady 
ventures  abroad,  save  perhaps  in  one  or  two 
streets  of  the  Frank  quarter,  without  the  escort 
of  a  gentleman  or  manservant;  the  Albanians  and 
other  lawless  elements  from  the  Macedonian 
"  hinterland  "  constituting  one  source  of  danger, 
and  the  long-horned  draught-buffaloes  and  files 
of  Jew-driven  pack-animals,  with  their  unwieldy 
burdens,  another.  By  night  the  public  safety  is 
in  many  localities  entrusted  to  the  bektchi — a 
counterpart  of  our  own  obsolete  watchman, 
who,  lantern  in  hand,  goes  his  round  between 
sunset  and  sunrise,  giving  to  evil-doers  chival- 
rous warning  of  his  approach  by  striking  his 
iron-shod  staff  at  intervals  on  the  pavement. 
Burglary,  however,  seems  to  be  a  crime  almost 
unknown  in  Turkey,  for  during  my  long  resi- 
dence in  the  country  I  cannot  recall  a  single  in- 
stance of  a  crime  of  such  a  character.  Every  one 
out-of-doors  after  sunset  is,  however,  required 
to  carry  a  lighted  lantern,  and  any  individual 
encountering  a  police  patrol  or  passing  a  guard- 
house without  this  token  of  his  honesty  of  pur- 
pose, will  hardly  avoid  getting  into  difficulties. 

To  the  habitual  temperance  of  the  industrial 
classes  of  Turkey,  and  more  especially  of  those 
professing  the  creed  of  Islam,  may,  no  doubt,  to 


74  Turkish  Life 

a  great  extent  be  attributed  the  absence  of  that 
acute  poverty  which  disgraces  the  great  cities 
of  the  West,  and  the  absence,  also,  of  a  criminal 
class  among  Moslems.  Charitable  foundations, 
such  as  almshouses,  refectories,  and  hospitals, 
are  attached  to  many  of  the  larger  mosques,  and 
also  to  some  of  the  Dervish  monasteries,  from 
which  the  needy  are  never  turned  away  empty- 
handed.  The  usefulness  of  many  of  these  chari- 
ties has,  unfortunately,  of*  late  years,  greatly 
diminished,  owing  to  the  misapplication  of  the 
revenues  with  which  they  were  endowed  by 
their  pious  founders. 


CHAPTER  IV 

HAREM  LIFE 

FROM  the  foregoing  description  of  the  homes 
of  Osmanlis  of  all  classes,  it  should,  I  think, 
be  apparent  that  the  harem,  far  from  being,  as  is 
so  often  supposed,  a  "detestable  prison,"  is  the 
most  cheerful  and  commodious  division  of  an 
Osmanli's  house.  The  term,  indeed,  simply 
means  a  sacred  enclosure,  being  applied  in  this 
sense  to  all  the  sanctuaries  of  Islam,  and  the 
haremlik  is  consequently  the  sanctum  sanctorum, 
the  place  safe  from  all  intrusion,  into  which  not 
even  the  master  may  enter  if  a  pair  of  galoshes 
at  the  door  of  the  reception-room  announces 
that  his  wife  has  guests.  The  only  persons  of 
the  masculine  sex,  besides  the  master,  who  are 
permitted  to  enter  the  haremlik  are  his  sons,  his 
wife's  father,  and  her  brothers.  In  large  cities 
members  of  the  "advanced"  class  of  society 
may  also  permit  the  visits  of  their  own  brothers 
and  more  distant  relations,  and  even  introduce 
to  their  wives  and  daughters  their  more  intimate 
men  friends.  But  in  old-fashioned  families,  such 
as  form  the  great  bulk  of  the  population,  no  male 
75 


76  Turkish  Life 

relative  of  the  master  is  allowed  access  to  the 
harem  after  attaining  his  twelfth  or  thirteenth 
year,  if  outside  the  prohibited  degrees  of  con- 
sanguinity, a  restriction  often  productive  of  much 
distress  to  young  people — cousins,  for  instance 
—  thus  inexorably  deprived  of  any  future  social 
intercourse,  unless  a  marriage  between  them 
should  subsequently  be  arranged. 
^As  with  Oriental  nations  generally,  the  mother 
occupies  the  most  honourable  position  among 
a  man's  female  relatives.  Osmanli  women  are 
perhaps  the  most  indulgent  mothers  to  be  found 
anywhere,  especially  to  their  sons,  who  naturally 
in  their  early  youth  take  advantage  of  their  de- 
votion and  make  slaves  of  them.  Arrived,  how- 
ever, at  years  of  discretion,  a  young  Osmanli, 
realising  the  Prophet's  words  that  "Paradise  is 
under  the  feet  of  the  mother,"  becomes  in  his 
turn  her  devoted  slave.  Debarred  from  social 
intercourse  with  all  who  are  not  closely  connected 
with  him  by  ties  of  blood,  a  man's  mother  and 
sisters  are  consequently  his  only  women  friends, 
and  to  this  fact  may  perhaps  be  traced  the  strong 
affection  which  exists  between  mother  and  son, 
brother  and  sister.  The  harem  has  indeed  been 
termed,  and  perhaps  not  untruly,  "the  sanctuary 
of  conjugal  happiness."  For  the  wife  and  daugh- 
ters, having  no  interests  outside  the  house,  use 
their  utmost  efforts  to  make  themselves  agree- 
able to  their  male  relatives. 


Harem  Life  77 

The  relations  between  the  various  members  of 
a  Turkish  household,  and  the  way  in  which  the 
younger  show  respect  towards  their  elders,  ap- 
pear somewhat  curious  to  Europeans.  If  a  man's 
mother  reside  permanently  under  his  roof,  which 
is  not  unusual,  his  wife's  position  in  the  house  is 
but  secondary,  and  she  is  required  to  defer  to 
her  mother-in-law's  opinion  in  all  things.  Hand- 
kissing  being  the  usual  mode  of  respectful  greet- 
ing, the  wife  kisses  her  mother-in-law's  hand  — 
as  also  that  of  her  husband  —  on  the  occasion  of 
any  family  event,  and  also  on  special  days,  such 
as  the  opening  of  the  Bairam  festival.  The  wife 
may  not  seat  herself  at  table  before  her  husband's 
mother,  nor  be  the  first  to  help  herself  to  the 
dishes,  nor  may  she  smoke  a  cigarette  in  the 
presence  of  the  "First  Lady"  unless  the  latter 
invites  her  to  do  so.  It  no  doubt  often  happens 
that  a  good  deal  of  friction  exists  between  two 
women  occupying  these  relative  positions;  but 
these  prescribed  rules  must  be  all  the  same  ob- 
served, and  the  young  hanum  probably  consoles 
herself  with  the  reflection  that  at  some  future 
date  their  observance  may  be  to  her  own  ad- 
vantage. In  all  matters  of  Osmanli  family,  and 
also  generally  of  social,  etiquette,  precedence  de- 
pends on  age.  If,  for  example,  a  married  Turk  has 
a  sister  residing  in  his  harem  with  his  wife,  the 
elder  of  the  two  would  enjoy  precedence  of  the 
other;  and  similarly,   if  he  has  three  children, 


78  Turkish  Life 

the  eldest  and  the  youngest  boys,  and  the  second 
a  girl,  she  must  defer  to  her  elder  brother,  while 
the  younger  boy,  spoilt  and  indulged  though  he 
may  be,  must  give  way  to  her  in  anything  that 
affects  their  common  interests.  Nor  do  the 
youthful  members  of  a  family  presume  to  sit 
cross-legged  before  their  elders. 

Domestic  slavery  has  always  existed  among 
the  Turks,  as  among  other  Oriental  and  Mediter- 
ranean nations,  but  in  a  milder  form  and  with 
brighter  hopes  for  the  bondsmen  and  -women 
than  the  history  of  servitude  among  other  races 
usually  exhibits.  The  Turkish  law  protects  the 
slave  from  arbitrary  cruelty  and  excessive  chas- 
tisement; the  Koran,  too,  inculcates  the  duty  of 
treating  servants  with  generosity,  and  extols  the 
merit  of  rewarding  a  faithful  slave  with  freedom; 
while  the  general  kindness  of  the  Osmanli  char- 
acter—  when  not  excited  by  war  or  religious 
fanaticism — constitutes  a  still  more  effectual  safe- 
guard against  oppression.  The  institution  of 
slavery,  as  it  now  exists  in  Turkey,  is,  however, 
to  a  great  extent  in  direct  contravention  of  the 
law  of  Islam,  which  only  recognises  as  legitimate 
property  non-Moslems  who  have  fallen  as  cap- 
tives of  war  into  the  power  of  the  "True  Be- 
lievers"; for  the  vast  majority  of  the  female 
slaves  brought  into  Turkey  at  the  present  day 
are  drawn  from  the  Circassian  race  who  profess 
the  creed  of  Islam,  and  their  purchase  and  sale 


Harem  Life  79 

are,  in  consequence,  illegal  acts  which  could 
hardly  be  justified  by  the  legists  of  the  Ottoman 
Empire.  The  Turks,  however,  get  over  this 
difficulty  by  asking  no  questions  concerning  the 
origin  of  the  women  and  children  presented  for 
sale  by  the  dealers,  and  absolve  their  consciences 
by  remarking,  "  Theirs  be  the  sin!  " 

Although  the  Porte,  in  deference  to  European 
opinion,  has  closed  the  public  slave-market  at 
Constantinople,  and  formally  prohibited  the  slave- 
trade,  no  material  change,  so  far  at  least  as  slave- 
women  are  concerned,  has  in  reality  taken  place 
in  this  respect.  Male  slaves  are,  for  various 
reasons,  certainly  far  less  numerous  now  than 
formerly;  paid  menials  have  almost  entirely  re- 
placed them  for  the  service  of  the  selamlik.  But 
for  the  service  of  the  harem,  as  at  present  con- 
stituted, female  slaves  are  indispensable,  it  being 
contrary  to  Moslem  notions  of  propriety  for  a 
free  woman  to  appear  unveiled  before  any  man 
not  a  near  relative.  In  the  case  of  a  slave,  how- 
ever, who  is  for  the  time  being  the  absolute 
property  of  her  master  or  mistress,  no  such  re- 
striction exists.  Since  the  abolition  of  the  public 
slave-market,  the  private  trade  in  slaves  has 
become  much  more  general  and  widely  spread 
than  formerly.  This  traffic  is  carried  on  to  a  great 
extent  by  women  of  rank,  some  of  whom  are 
themselves  emancipated  slaves;  and  the  profits 
they  realise  are  said  to  be   very  considerable, 


80  Turkish  Life 

especially  when  their  operations  are  on  a  large 
scale.  On  the  arrival  in  the  capital  of  a  fresh 
batch  of  children,  a  broker  is  despatched  by  the 
consignees  to  the  houses  of  these  women  dealers, 
who,  if  they  desire  to  add  to  their  stock-in-trade, 
either  drive  to  the  establishment  of  the  slave 
merchants,  or  have  the  girls  brought  to  their 
own  houses  for  inspection.  Children  of  from 
six  to  ten  years  of  age  are  most  sought  after 
by  these  connoisseurs,  who  pay  large  prices  for 
them  in  the  expectation  of  receiving  perhaps  ten 
times  that  amount  when  the  girls  are  about  seven- 
teen. The  selection  made,  and  the  bargain  con- 
cluded, the  child  is  placed  under  the  care  of  a 
half  a,  or  head-servant,  who  carefully  trains  and 
educates  her  for  the  position  she  will  probably 
be  called  upon  in  after  years  to  fill.  The  slaves 
thus  purchased  as  a  speculation  are  taught  to 
play  on  the  lute  and  tambourine,  to  sing,  dance, 
and  embroider,  besides  being  by  degrees  initiated 
into  the  mysteries  of  Ottoman  etiquette  and  de- 
portment, and  also  of  enhancing  by  art  the 
charms  bestowed  upon  them  by  nature.  Some 
of  the  lighter  duties  of  the  household  may  also,  as 
the  girls  grow  up,  fall  to  their  share.  One  elderly 
hanum  of  my  acquaintance  had  trained  a  con- 
siderable number  of  slave-girls,  all  of  whom 
she  had  disposed  of  to  advantage,  no  fewer  than 
fourteen  having  entered  the  Imperial  household. 
When  I  first  met  this  lady  she  had  just  acquired 


Harem  Life  81 

half  a  dozen  fresh  protegees  from  six  to  eight 
years  of  age,  who  generally  accompanied  her 
when  she  went  out  driving  or  to  pay  visits. 
Various  fancy  names  had  been  bestowed  on  these 
children  by  their  patroness,  such  as  "Amour," 
and  "Bulbul";  some  were  dressed  as  boys  in 
miniature  uniforms,  and  the  rest  in  garments 
supposed  to  be  European.  They  all,  however, 
seemed  to  be  very  happy  and  full  of  life  and  fun, 
while  their  manner  to  the  hanum,  half  obsequi- 
ous and  half  saucy,  was  very  amusing  to  observe. 

It  is  customary  for  the  nation  to  present  annu- 
ally to  the  Sultan,  on  the  occasion  of  the  feast  of 
Kandil  Ghedjessi,  a  beautiful  slave  for  the  Impe- 
rial harem,  and  previous  to  this  date  the  estab- 
lishments in  which  these  commodities  may  be 
found  are  visited  by  the  dames  with  whom 
the  choice  rests.  The  Valide  Sultana,  or  her 
deputy,  the  superintendent  of  the  harem,  is  also 
on  the  lookout  for  select  beauties  to  replenish  the 
personnel  of  the  palace,  and  Pashas  and  great 
ladies  frequently  seek  to  propitiate  their  sovereign 
with  such  gifts.  The  Sultan  on  his  side  will  also 
occasionally  bestow  a  star  from  this  galaxy  of 
beauty  on  some  Minister  or  other  functionary 
whom  he  desires  specially  to  honour;  and  the 
happy  recipient;  to  show  his  appreciation  of  this 
mark  of  royal  favour,  will,  of  course,  enfranchise 
and  marry  the  lady. 

Great  humility  of  manner  is   required   from 

6 


82  Turkish  Life 

slaves  in  the  presence  of  visitors,  when  etiquette 
requires  them  to  stand  before  their  mistress  in 
a  posture  of  most  profound  respect,  and  to  address 
her  with  expressions  of  exaggerated  deference. 
In  private,  however,  they  are  allowed  consider- 
able freedom,  both  of  speech  and  action.  In  the 
matter  of  food,  a  slave  fares  as  well  as  her  owners ; 
and,  whatever  her  faults  and  shortcomings,  she 
may  not  be  sent  adrift  into  the  world,  her  owner 
being  responsible  for  her  maintenance;  while  at 
the  end  of  seven  years'  servitude  she  is  entitled 
to  her  freedom,  and  generally  obtains  with  it  a 
trousseau,  as  well  as  a  husband ;  for  to  establish 
well  the  women  who  have  for  some  years  formed 
part  of  their  household  is  a  question  of  amour 
propre  with  Turkish  women,  who  naturally  like 
to  have  their  generosity  extolled  by  their  neigh- 
bours. In  the  case  of  people  in  an  official  posi- 
tion, the  husband  chosen  for  a  favourite  slave  is 
generally  some  favourite  employee  of  the  Effendi, 
a  subordinate  official  being,  on  his  side,  only  too 
glad  to  enter  into  an  arrangement  which  brings 
him  into  closer  relations  with  the  family  of  his 
superior. 

Occasionally,  of  course,  slaves  may  fall  into 
bad  hands  and  be  resold  before  the  expiration 
of  the  stipulated  seven  years,  in  order  that  their 
owner  may  not  lose  his  or  her  purchase-money; 
or  they  may  become  the  property  of  persons  of 
violent  temper,  or  cruel  disposition.     That  such 


Harem  Life  &3 

cases  are  not,  however,  of  very  frequent  occur- 
rence, is  evident  from  the  small  number  of  slaves 
who  are  driven  to  seek  the  protection  of  the  law, 
or  that  of  the  consuls  of  foreign  nations.  Speak- 
ing generally,  indeed,  female  slaves  in  Turkey 
have  very  little  to  complain  of.  The  good  for- 
tune of  those  gifted  with  personal  attractions  is, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  assured  from  the  outset,  for 
many  Turks  prefer,  for  various  reasons,  to  take 
as  wives  women  who  have  been  brought  up  as 
slaves.  Marriage  with  a  free  woman  is  a  costly 
matter  for  a  bridegroom  and  his  parents,  owing 
to  the  lavish  expenditure  in  presents  and  en- 
tertainments demanded  by  custom  on  such 
occasions.  All  Turks  marry  young;  and,  con- 
sequently, if  a  father  cannot  afford  to  wed 
his  son  to  a  maiden  of  his  own  rank,  he  pur- 
chases for  him  a  slave-girl,  who  has  been  brought 
up  in  some  great  lady's  harem,  and  no  expense 
is  incurred  beyond  the  purchase-money.  A  slave, 
having  no  position  of  her  own,  may  also  be  ex- 
pected to  be  submissive  and  obedient  to  and 
anxious  to  please  her  lord  and  master  and  his 
parents,  and  to  display  no  troublesome  preten- 
sions and  caprices.  Another  great  advantage  in 
such  a  marriage  is  that  the  wife  has  no  interfer- 
ing relatives  to  take  her  part  against  her  husband. 
A  free  woman,  on  the  contrary,  is  by  no  means 
always  disposed  to  have,  according  to  her  own 
expression,  "neither  mouth  nor  tongue."     She 


84  Turkish  Life 

is  fuHy  aware  of  her  rights,  and  inclined  to  assert 
them;  and  the  moral  support  afforded  by  her 
family  gives  her  an  assurance  which  the  husband 
often  finds  extremely  inconvenient.  Should  a 
slave  bear  a  child  to  her  master  she  cannot  be 
resold,  but  has  a  right  to  remain  and  bring  up 
her  child  in  its  father's  house.  Her  offspring  is 
considered  legitimate,  and  inherits  the  father's 
property  in  equal  shares  with  the  children  of  his 
free  wife,  should  he  have  one.  In  all  probability 
her  owner  will  set  her  free  and  marry  her,  in 
which  case  she  assumes  the  social  position,  and 
is  invested  with  all  the  rights  and  privileges  of  a 
free-born  Osmanli  woman. 

Such  good  fortune  apart,  however,  the  lot 
of  the  slave-girl  in  Turkey  is  in  many  respects 
preferable  to  that  of  the  majority  of  domestic 
servants  in  the  West.  Her  duties  are  at  no 
time  arduous,  be  she  housemaid,  nursemaid,  or 
lady's-maid,  and  leave  her  plenty  of  leisure  to 
dream  of  the  day  when  she,  too,  may  be  a 
hanum,  with  slaves  to  wait  upon  her  —  a  castle 
in  the  air  which,  as  we  have  seen,  has  every 
chance  of  taking  solid  form  should  Nature  have 
endowed  her  with  personal  charms.  When  the 
ladies  of  the  family  go  out  walking,  driving, 
shopping,  picnicking,  or  to  the  public  baths,  a 
number  of  the  slaves  also  share  the  treat.  It  is, 
no  doubt,  greatly  owing  to  this  custom  of  in- 
cluding some   of  the  slaves  in  every  party  of 


Harem  Life  85 

pleasure  or  excursion  abroad,  that  misconcep- 
tions arise  in  the  minds  of  foreigners  as  to  the 
general  practice  of  polygamy.  A  lady  with 
slaves  to  dispose  of  naturally  dresses  and  other- 
wise "gets  them  up"  well,  and  drives  them  out 
in  order  to  advertise  them;  and  carriages  filled 
with  Turkish  hanums  —  or  what  appear  to  the 
inexperienced  tourist  as  such  —  are  by  him  put 
down  as  filled  with  the  wives  or  odalisks  of  one 
Pasha,  while  they  are  in  reality  the  private  pro- 
perty of  his  wife.  I  remember,  indeed,  in  the 
early  days  of  my  residence  in  Turkey,  being  my- 
self considerably  puzzled  as  to  the  status  of  the 
half-dozen  richly  dressed  young  women  who 
arrived  with  a  Pasha's  lady  to  pay  a  call, — or, 
rather,  a  three-hours'  visitation, — and  who,  ac- 
cording to  Turkish  custom,  on  arriving,  divested 
themselves  of  their  outdoor  gear. 

It  is  considered  by  Moslems  a  pious  and  merit- 
orious act  to  free  a  slave,  and  Osmanli  men  and 
women  frequently  in  their  wills,  or  on  their 
death-beds,  bequeath  their  liberty  to  the  slaves 
of  the  household.  A  male  slave  on  his  manu- 
mission at  once  becomes,  so  far  as  civil  rights 
are  concerned,  the  equal  of  his  former  master, 
and  may  aspire  to  the  highest  office  or  dignity  in 
the  State;  while  a  female  slave,  on  being  set  free, 
whether  married  to  a  native  Osmanli  or  to  a  freed 
man  of  her  own  class,  acquires  the  title  of  hanum 
and  all  the  other  privileges  of  a  free-born  woman. 


86  Turkish  Life 

It  is  also  a  very  common  practice  for  childless 
couples  and  widows  to  enfranchise  and  adopt 
as  their  heirs  slave-children,  both  boys  and 
girls,  whom  they  have  purchased,  and  to  whom 
they  have  taken  a  fancy.  I  was  some  years  ago 
in  the  habit  of  meeting  a  lady,  a  Circassian  by 
birth,  who,  brought  to  Constantinople  as  a  mere 
infant,  had  herself  been  purchased  and  adopted 
by  a  lady  of  high  rank.  When  left  in  middle 
age  a  childless  widow,  she  in  her  turn  enfran- 
chised and  adopted  two  little  Circassian  girls, 
whom  she  brought  up  and  for  whom  she  found 
husbands. 

In  former  times  the  female  slaves  who  peopled 
the  harems  of  Turkey  belonged  to  a  great  variety 
of  races  and  nationalities,  European  as  well  as 
Asiatic;  but  at  the  present  day  the  Circassian 
race  furnishes  the  great  majority,  the  rest  of  the 
white  slaves  being  Yezidis  from  Kurdistan,  or 
Georgians;  though,  since  the  Russian  occupa- 
tion of  that  former  happy  hunting-ground  of  the 
slave-dealer,  this  traffic  has  only  been  carried  on 
clandestinely.  A  considerable  number  of  ne- 
gresses  and  Abyssinians  are  also  annually  smug- 
gled into  the  country  from  Africa.  Quite  recently 
I  met  on  board  a  Mediterranean  steamer  the  wife 
of  a  Turkish  governor,  who,  apparently  ignoring 
the  cession  so  many  years  ago  of  Cyprus  to 
Great  Britain,  announced  her  intention  of  pro- 
ceeding to  that  island  for  the  purpose  of  replen- 


Harem  Life  87 

ishing  her  household  —  its  position  having  no 
doubt  been  in  former  days  found  convenient  as 
a  central  market  for  the  human  cargoes  shipped 
from  Africa,  Syria,  and  Southern  Asia  Minor. 

The  demand  for  slaves  for  the  service  of  Turk- 
ish households  is  practically  perennial,  seeing 
that,  instead  of  forming  a  separate  class  or  caste 
in  the  country,  the  vast  majority  of  bondsmen 
and  -women  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  obtain 
their  liberty  and  and  become  merged  in  the  free 
Ottoman  nation.  The  large  number  of  Africans 
of  both  sexes  introduced  for  centuries  past  into 
Turkey,  and  also  eventually  manumitted,  might 
lead  one  to  expect  to  find  a  considerable  coloured 
element  in  the  population.  This,  however,  is  not 
the  case.  The  climate  appears  to  be  unfavour- 
able to  the  propagation  of  the  coloured  races,  and 
the  few  negro  or  mulatto  children  who  come  into 
the  world  die,  as  a  rule,  in  infancy. 

Daily  life  in  a  Turkish  harem  is  no  doubt,  as  a 
rule,  somewhat  monotonous,  and  in  some  ways 
the  liberty  of  a  Turkish  lady  is  certainly  more 
restricted  than  that  of  European  women  gener- 
ally; but  in  her  own  home  she  is  as  absolutely 
mistress  of  her  time  as  of  her  property;  and  to 
judge  by  the  number  of  Turkish  women  one 
meets  in  the  streets,  on  the  steamers  plying  be- 
tween Galata  and  the  many  suburbs  on  the  Bos- 
phorus,  and,  on  holidays,  at  the  various  pleasure 
resorts,    she   is   also   allowed   a  great  deal   of 


88  Turkish  Life 

out-of-door  liberty.  The  hanum,  as  may  be  sup- 
posed, begins  her  day  with  the  indispensable  cup 
of  coffee  and  the  cigarette.  She  may  then  take 
her  bath,  or  what  on  ordinary  occasions  does 
duty  for  one.  The  young  ladies  wash  at  the 
hours  of  abtesi— the  ablution  that  precedes  the 
five  daily  prayers — the  slaves  when  they  can  find 
time.  The  hanum  then  waits  upon  her  hus- 
band, brings  his  coffee  and  tchibouk,  his  pelisse 
and  slippers.  If  he  is  an  official  he  will  now 
look  at  his  morning's  letters,  bestowing  at  inter- 
vals a  few  words  on  his  wife,  who  addresses 
him  as  Effendi  ("Sir"),  and  always  with  great 
deference — not,  however,  greater  than  was  cus- 
tomary among  people  of  quality  in  England  some 
generations  ago.  The  children  will  then  appear 
in  their  nightgear,  and,  after  kissing  their  father's 
hand,  receive  from  their  mother  a  few  coppers 
to  buy  their  breakfast,  which  is  generally  pro- 
vided in  this  irregular  way,  and  consists  chiefly 
of  fancy  bread,  with  the  addition  of  fruit  in 
summer  and  cheese  or  sweets  in  winter. 

The  day's  occupation  begins  as  soon  as  the 
Effendi  has  left  the  haremlik.  If  this  should  in- 
clude any  special  household  work,  such  as  wash- 
ing, ironing,  or  the  making  of  cake  or  preserves, 
the  women,  especially  in  the  provinces,  no  matter 
how  high  their  rank,  or  how  numerous  their 
slaves,  will  personally  supervise  or  even  take  part 
in  it;  for  Turkish  women  generally,  having  so 


Harem  Life  89 

few  interests  outside  the  home,  are  naturally  very 
domesticated,  and  no  accomplishments  are  so 
much  appreciated  in  the  average  marriageable 
maiden  as  the  domestic  arts  of  cooking,  laundry- 
and  needlework.  Much  time  is  also  devoted  to 
embroidering  the  scarfs,  towels,  sheets,  quilts, 
and  other  articles  destined  to  figure  in  the  trous- 
seau of  a  Turkish  girl  and  bedeck  her  nuptial 
chamber. 

Although  the  domestic  economy  of  the  natives 
of  Turkey  generally  is  of  a  somewhat  hand-to- 
mouth  character,  so  far  as  meat,  vegetables,  and 
fruits  are  concerned,  it  is  not  customary  for  wo- 
men, whether  Christian  or  Moslem,  to  frequent 
the  shops  in  which  fresh  provisions  are  sold,  and 
the  family  marketing  for  the  wealthy  is  usually 
performed  by  a  man-servant,  and  among  the 
poorer  by  the  men  and  children  of  the  family. 
Accounts  are  settled  daily  between  the  ayvas,  as 
the  purveyor  is  termed,  and  the  mistress,  through 
the  revolving  cupboard  or  at  the  kitchen  door, 
behind  which  the  lady  sits  with  a  muslin  veil 
thrown  over  her  head  —  a  transaction  which  to 
a  bystander  generally  appears  to  call  for  elevated 
voices  and  language  more  forcible  than  polite. 
Like  all  Orientals,  the  Turks  indulge  in  but  two 
meals  a  day  —  the  karvalto,  which  corresponds 
to  the  French  dejeuner,  and  may  be  eaten  at  any 
time  between  eleven  and  one  o'clock,  and  the 
yemek,  or  dinner,  usually  partaken  of  at  sunset, 


9°  Turkish  Life 

though  punctuality  is  by  no  means  a  feature  of 
an  Osmanli  household.  Harem  hospitality  gen- 
erally takes  the  form  of  luncheon-parties,  as, 
save  during  Ramazan,  no  women,  and  few  men, 
go  abroad  after  sunset,  and  dinner  is  the  only 
meal  which  a  Turk  eats  in  the  bosom  of  his 
family.  This  meal  is  always,  among  the  well- 
to-do,  preceded  by  me^liks,  or  hors  d'ceumre, 
—  consisting  of  pistachio  nuts,  salted  fish-roes, 
radishes,  cucumbers,  olives,  and  similar  entrees, 
often  flanked  with  a  decanter  of  raki,  the  na- 
tive spirit,  unless  the  Effendi  is  a  strait-laced 
and  strict  Moslem  of  the  old  school, —  which  are 
partaken  of,  weather  permitting,  in  the  garden 
or  on  the  verandah,  family  discussion  often  post- 
poning the  evening  meal  indefinitely.  A  Turkish 
dinner  comprises  a  great  many  courses,  some- 
times ten  or  twelve,  a  number  of  which  will  be 
of  vegetables  often  stuffed  with  rice,  minced 
meat  and  seasoning,  and  cooked  in  oil.  The 
meat  is  generally,  to  an  English  palate,  over- 
done and  badly  served,  except  perhaps  the  lamb 
roasted  whole  and  stuffed  with  rice,  pine  kernels, 
and  currants,  and  the  kebab  —  small  pieces  of 
meat  broiled  on  skewers  and  served  with  a  kind 
of  batter-pudding.  The  last  course  before  the 
sweets  is  invariably  either  the  native  pilaf,  or 
macaroni,  with  tomato-sauce  and  grated  cheese. 
No  liquids  are  partaken  of  at  table,  but  fruit, 
such  as  watermelon,  is  often  eaten  between  the 


Harem  Life  91 

courses.  The  sweets  are  numerous  and  varied, 
and  include  many  delicious  fruit  compotes. 

When  dinner  has  been  announced,  the  hostess 
leads  the  way  into  the  dining-room.  Servants 
approach  and  pour  water  over  the  hands  from 
quaintly  shaped  brass  jugs;  others  hold  basins 
to  catch  it  as  it  falls,  for  Orientals  never  wash 
save  in  running  water;  others  offer  embroidered 
towels,  which  are  retained  for  use  as  napkins 
during  the  meal.  With  European  furniture,  Eu- 
ropean customs  have  been  largely  adopted  by 
the  elite  of  Constantinople  society;  but  the  Turks 
generally  still  take  their  meals  seated  on  the 
floor  round  the  low  circular  tray-stand,  on  which 
the  above-mentioned  dishes  are  placed  in  succes- 
sion, helping  themselves  with  their  fingers  with- 
out the  intervention  of  plates,  forks,  or  spoons, 
save  for  the  soup.  About  half  a  dozen  persons 
sit,  as  a  rule,  round  each  tray,  and  if  the  guests 
are  numerous  two  or  more  trays  are  served. 
The  hostess,  if  she  be  of  higher  rank  than  her 
guests,  is  the  first  to  dip  her  spoon  into  the 
soup-tureen,  otherwise,  with  a  graceful  salaam 
and  the  words :  "Bouyourn  Effendi,"  she  politely 
invites  the  lady  entitled  to  precedence  to  begin. 

The  way  in  which  coffee  is  served  is  one  of 
the  prettiest  of  old  Turkish  customs.  A  number 
of  slaves  enter  the  room  and  stand  in  a  row  at 
the  lower  end  with  arms  crossed  on  their  breasts 
—  the  usual  attitude  of  respect.     A  half  a,  or 


92  Turkish  Life 

head-servant,  carries  in  the  coffee  service  on  a  tray 
draped  with  a  napkin  handsomely  embroidered  at 
either  end,  and  takes  up  her  station  in  the  centre 
of  the  apartment.  One  by  one  the  attendants 
advance,  each  pours  out  a  cup  of  the  carefully 
prepared  beverage,  places  it  in  a  silver  holder,  and 
hands  it  to  a  guest,  and  then  retires  to  a  distance 
until  she  is  required  to  take  the  empty  cup. 

If  the  lady  has  a  son  of  marriageable  age,  the 
selection  of  a  suitable  bride  for  him  will  afford 
her  considerable  occupation.  For,  bachelorhood 
being  held  in  light  esteem  among  Moslems,  the 
state  of  matrimony  is  correspondingly  honoured, 
and  early  marriages  are  the  rule.  Should  no 
maiden  among  her  acquaintance  appear  to  pos- 
sess all  the  qualifications  she  requires  in  a  daugh- 
ter-in-law, the  hanum  looks  farther  afield.  From 
her  friends,  or  from  one  of  the  numerous  old 
women  who  make  a  living  by  hawking  articles 
of  dress,  jewellery,  cosmetics,  and  perfumes, 
from  harem  to  harem  —  a  class  who  perform  all 
the  "back-stair"  intrigue  of  the  East  —  she  will 
soon  procure  a  list  of  eligible  maidens,  and, 
accompanied  by  one  or  two  relatives  and  a 
professional  matchmaker,  set  out  on  a  tour  of 
inspection.  Personal  introductions  are  quite 
unnecessary  under  such  circumstances;  the 
ladies  are  at  once  admitted  by  the  portress  and 
conducted  up-stairs  to  an  anteroom,  where, 
while  being  divested  of  their  outdoor  gear  by 


Harem  Life  93 

another  waiting-maid,  they  announce  the  object 
of  their  visit.  Informed  of  this,  the  lady  of  the 
house  hastens  to  receive  her  visitors  with  all 
honour  in  the  drawing-room,  while  her  eldest 
daughter  proceeds  to  dress  and  adorn  herself 
with  the  utmost  care  in  order  to  make  a  favour- 
able impression  on  the  "viewers."  The  two 
mothers  meanwhile,  studiously  avoiding  the  sub- 
ject at  issue,  exchange  conventional  compliments, 
until  the  portiere  is  raised  and  the  maiden  enters 
the  room,  becoming  at  once  "the  cynosure  of 
all  eyes."  She  approaches  to  kiss  in  turn  the 
hands  of  all  the  guests,  and  then  serves  them 
with  coffee  from  the  tray  with  which  a  slave  has 
followed  her  into  the  room.  After  waiting  to 
remove  the  empty  cups,  she  salaams  low,  and 
disappears.  '  'Mashallah  I ' '  the  visitors  —  what- 
ever their  private  opinion  may  be  —  are  required 
by  custom  to  exclaim:  "What  a  beauty!  Your 
daughter,  Hanum  Effendi,  is  like  a  full  moon. 
What  splendid  hair  she  has,  and  what  eyes^  " 
And  the  chief  "viewer"  proceeds  to  expatiate 
on  the  excellent  qualities  and  prospects  of  her 
son,  states  the  amount  of  dower  he  is  prepared 
to  settle  on  his  bride,  and  the  sum  to  be  paid  to 
her  parents;  makes  inquiries  as  to  the  girl's  age 
and  fortune,  if  any;  and  finally  departs,  saying: 
"If  it  is  their  Kismet,  they  may  become  better 
acquainted."  After  some  half-dozen  girls  have 
been  thus  inspected,  the  mother  returns  home 


94  Turkish  Life 

to  describe  them  to  her  husband  and  son.  The 
selection  made,  intermediaries  are  despatched  to 
the  family  of  the  fortunate  maiden  to  settle  the 
preliminaries,  and  if  no  hitch  occurs  the  cus- 
tomary presents  are  exchanged  and  the  betrothal 
concluded. 

In  a  middle-class  harem  containing  several 
marriageable  daughters,  these  exciting  episodes, 
no  doubt,  happen  somewhat  frequently,  and 
considerably  vary  the  monotony  of  life  until  all 
the  olive-branches  are  satisfactorily  "married 
and  settled."  And  it  may  be  here  remarked 
that,  notwithstanding  all  the  social  and  religious 
conventionalities  which,  as  we  have  seen,  sur- 
round the  lives  of  Osmanli  girls,  love  occasion- 
ally surmounts  the  barriers  of  harem  restraint, 
and  romance  ends  happily  in  marriage.  It  is 
said  that  an  old  maid  does  not  exist  in  Turkish 
society,  so  rarely  is  it  that  a  husband  cannot  be 
found  for  a  girl  of  marriageable  age;  for  the 
plain  or  deformed  daughter  of  a  wealthy  man 
will  be  bestowed  on  some  needy  youth,  to  the 
furtherance  of  whose  ambitious  schemes  the 
patronage  of  her  father  is  necessary,  and  many 
Pashas  of  high  rank,  and  even  Grand  Viziers, 
have  owed  their  success  in  life  to  the  influence 
and  interest  possessed  by  their  wives. 

Wedding  and  other  family  festivals,  promenad- 
ing, driving,  shopping,  and  going  to  the  public 
hammam,  or  Turkish  bath,  are  the  chief  out-of- 


Harem  Life  95 

door  amusements  of  Mohammedan  women.  For 
all  these,  except  the  last,  the  Effendi's  permis- 
sion must  be  obtained.  If  he  is  inclined  to  be 
jealous  or  strait-laced,  he  may  object  to  his 
family  being  seen  much  out  of  doors;  but  as  a 
rule  leave  is  freely  granted.  If  a  drive  is  pro- 
jected, the  children  and  the  slaves  all  clamour 
to  be  taken.  The  former  may  be  bribed  with 
money  or  sweets  to  remain  at  home;  but  it  is 
not  always  without  tears  and  quarrels  that  it  is 
settled  who  among  the  latter  shall  accompany 
their  mistresses.  A  Mohammedan  gentleman, 
be  it  observed,  never,  under  any  circumstances, 
goes  abroad  in  company  with  the  women  of  his 
household.  Little  girls  under  twelve  years  of 
age,  dressed  for  the  most  part  in  a  travesty  of 
European  costume,  may  often  be  seen  walking, 
driving,  or  paying  calls  with  their  fathers  or 
brothers,  and  are  also  allowed  free  access  to  the 
selamlik.  But,  the  veil  once  donned,  a  girl  enters 
the  ranks  of  womanhood,  and  is  thenceforward 
amenable  to  the  law  of  namekhram  and  subject 
to  all  the  restrictions  of  the  harem.  The  reason 
of  this  separation  of  the  sexes  out-of-doors  is 
sufficiently  obvious;  for  a  father  or  brother 
could  not  frequent  the  public  promenades  in 
company  with  his  womenkind  without  bringing 
them  directly  under  the  notice  of  his  men  ac- 
quaintances, and  thus  infringing  the  fundamental 
principle  of  the  harem  system. 


96  Turkish  Life 

In  the  houses  of  a  few  high  dignitaries  of  the 
old  school,  as  well  as  in  the  Imperial  palaces, 
negro  eunuchs  still  act  as  intermediaries  between 
the  outer  world  and  the  ladies  of  the  harem, 
whom  they  accompany  whenever  they  go  abroad, 
walking  or  driving.  In  the  house  they  also  take 
charge  of  the  children  of  both  sexes,  and  super- 
intend the  conduct  of  the  female  slaves  of  every 
grade  from  odalisk  to  scullery-maid. 

Going  to  the  hammam  is  made  an  occasion  of 
great  ceremony.  The  bath  is  the  Turkish  lady's 
club,  where  she  meets  her  friends,  is  introduced 
to  new  acquaintances,  and  hears  all  the  news  of 
the  day.  Here  the  hanums  also  congregate  for 
the  ceremonial  ablution  connected  with  the  cele- 
bration of  weddings  and  other  family  events, 
accompanied  by  their  daughters,  infant  sons,  and 
slaves,  all  of  whom  participate  in  the  ablutionary 
process.  A  complete  outfit  of  fine  garments  for 
each  lady  is  carried  to  the  hammam  by  a  slave, 
tied  up  in  a  boktcha,  or  bundle-wrap  —  the  primi- 
tive and  universal  portmanteau  —  made  generally 
of  brocaded  silk,  and  often  embroidered  with 
pearls  and  gold  thread.  These  garments  are 
donned  after  the  bath,  together  with  all  the 
finest  jewels,  for  the  admiration,  and  perhaps 
envy,  of  the  other  ladies  they  are  sure  to  meet 
at  that  social  centre.  Other  slaves  carry  rugs, 
towels,  brass  basins,  and  a  score  of  other  mys- 
terious articles  considered  necessary  for  this  im- 


Harem  Life  97 

portant  function,  besides  fruits  and  refreshments 
of  all  kinds.  And  here  the  ladies  remain  for  the 
best  part  of  the  day,  eating,  drinking,  singing, 
and  frolicking  in  the  intervals  of  the  various 
operations  they  undergo  of  repeated  soapings, 
rinsings,  rubbings,  applications  of  crushed  laurel- 
berries  to  the  hair  to  render  it  black  and  glossy, 
or  of  henna  to  impart  an  auburn  tint,  of  the 
latter  also  to  the  finger-  and  toe-nails  to  stain 
them  of  an  orange  colour,  and  other  mysteries 
of  the  toilette  impossible  to  describe. 

The  behaviour  of  a  party  of  Turkish  women 
when  abroad  depends  naturally  upon  the  char- 
acter of  the  Bash  Kadin.  If  this  lady  belongs 
to  the  well-bred  and  dignified  class  of  hanums, 
they  will  proceed  quietly  and  decorously  to  their 
destination,  whether  this  be  the  bazaars,  the 
suburbs,  or  the  harem  of  a  friend,  and,  their  ob- 
ject accomplished,  return  home  in  a  few  hours. 
But  should  the  hanum  be  of  a  gay  and  frolicsome 
disposition,  or  have  passed  part  of  her  life  in  the 
Imperial  Serai,  the  behaviour  of  her  party  will  be 
strikingly  different.  The  occupants  of  the  car- 
riages divert  themselves  by  exchanging  pleas- 
antries with  the  coachmen  and  attendants  —  if 
these  are  sufficiently  young  and  handsome  — 
and  make  salaams  and  remarks  to  the  passers-by. 
Arrived  at  the  European  shops,  they  flirt  with 
the  shopkeepers  and  their  assistants,  wander 
about  and  inspect  the  goods,  asking  the  most 


9^  Turkish  Life 

absurd  questions  concerning  the  use  of  articles 
not  familiar  to  them.  Still  greater,  however,  is 
the  abandon  when  a  picnic  or  long  drive  into 
the  country  is  the  object  of  the  day's  outing. 
Osmanli  women  are  passionately  fond  of  the 
open  air;  and  the  number  of  charming  resorts 
within  easy  reach  of  the  capital,  added  to  the 
most  magnificent  climate  in  the  world,  offer 
every  facility  for  the  indulgence  of  this  taste. 
Every  provincial  city  and  town  possesses  like- 
wise in  its  vicinity  a  choice  of  delightful  situa- 
tions where  the  eye  can  drink  its  fill  of  beauty 
from  verdant  earth,  azure  sky,  or  sunlit  sea;  and 
it  is  almost  impossible  to  visit  any  of  these  spots 
without  finding  there  a  group  of  Osmanli  women 
"taking  their  haif."  Among  the  resorts  most 
affected  by  the  inhabitants  of  the  capital  are  the 
Sweet  Waters  of  Europe,  the  Sweet  Waters 
of  Asia,  the  Sultan's  Valley,  and  the  Vale  of 
Lindens.  When  on  their  way  to  this  or  some 
other  suburban  promenade,  the  gaiety  and  fun 
indulged  in  by  these  lively  hanums  and  their 
attendants  baffle  description.  Their  provocative 
behaviour  towards  Christians  and  others  with 
whom  they  come  in  contact  is,  no  doubt,  largely 
prompted  by  the  knowledge  of  their  immunity 
from  insult,  for  they  are  perfectly  aware  that  no 
one  would  dare  to  take  advantage  of  it,  and  that 
the  only  punishment  to  which  the  levity  of  their 
conduct  lays  them  open  is  the  stern  rebuke  of  a 


Harem  Life  99 

grave  and  reverend  Hodja.  Arrived  at  their 
destination,  the  hanums  and  their  slaves  abandon 
themselves  to  unrestrained  enjoyment.  Seated 
cross-legged  on  the  carpets  which  they  have 
brought  with  them,  they  pass  the  time  in  eating 
fruits,  sweets,  cakes,  and  other  dainties,  sipping 
coffee,  and  smoking  cigarettes,  varying  these 
pursuits  with  singing  and  dancing.  Or  they 
roam  over  the  green  meadows,  romping  and 
racing  with  shouts  of  merry  laughter  and  jok- 
ing indescribable.  As  soon,  however,  as  the 
shadows  begin  to  lengthen,  they  prepare  to  de- 
part; for  they  set  out  early  in  order  to  have 
a  long  day,  and  are  careful  to  arrive  home  before 
sunset  in  order  to  receive  their  Effendi  on  his 
arrival. 

It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  the  more  secluded 
the  domestic  life  of  a  people  the  greater  is  the 
publicity  given  to  ceremonies  connected  with 
family  events,  and  the  observances  of  the  Os- 
manlis  form  no  exception  to  this  rule.  Births, 
circumcisions,  weddings,  and  funerals  are  all 
celebrated  with  elaborate  ceremonial,  religious 
and  secular,  in  which  the  neighbourhood  is  to  a 
great  extent  invited  to  participate.  The  festivi- 
ties connected  with  such  events  constitute,  indeed, 
the  chief  recreations  of  Osmanli  women.  On 
the  third  day  after  the  birth  of  her  firstborn,  a 
mother  holds  a  formal  reception,  for  which  in- 
vitations, accompanied  by  bottles  of  sherbet,  are 


ioo  Turkish  Life 

carried  round  to  friends  by  old  women,  whose 
profession  is  that  of  Musdadjis,  or  "bringers  of 
tidings."  Open  house  is  also  kept  on  this  day, 
and  all  visitors,  whether  invited  or  not,  are  hos- 
pitably received,  with  this  distinction,  that  the 
bidden  guests  are  regaled  with  luncheon,  and 
the  unbidden  with  light  refreshments  only. 
Musicians  are  in  attendance  to  receive  and  ac- 
company up-stairs  the  most  distinguished  guests, 
who  arrive  in  parties  preceded  by  servants  car- 
rying baskets  of  sweets  prettily  decorated  with 
flowers,  and  tied  up  with  gauze  and  ribbons. 
If  the  father  of  the  child  holds  any  official  post, 
it  is  customary  for  his  fellow-employees  to  send, 
with  the  baskets  of  sweets,  more  or  less  valuable 
presents.  After  divesting  themselves  of  their 
veils  and  cloaks  in  the  anteroom,  the  visitors  are 
ushered  with  great  ceremony  into  the  state  bed- 
chamber. 

"  Mashallah  !  Long-lived  and  happy  may  it 
be!"  is  the  salutation  of  the  matrons  to  the 
happy  mother,  who  kisses  their  hands  in  ac- 
knowledgment of  their  good  wishes.  Little  or 
no  notice  is  taken  of  the  baby  personally,  as  the 
mother  and  her  near  relatives  are  best  pleased 
when  it  is  altogether  ignored  and  spared  the 
risk  of  the  evil  eye  being  cast  upon  it.  If,  how- 
ever, feminine  curiosity  and  interest  in  babies  are 
too  strong  to  allow  of  the  infant's  being  entirely 
overlooked,  the  hanums,  after  pretending  to  spit 


Harem'  Life  '  ioi 

at  it,  conceal  their  admiration  under  some  such 
disparaging  remarks  as"  Nasty,  ugly  little  thing ! " 
to  show  that  they  bear  no  malice.  For  in  Turkey, 
as  in  many  other  countries,  it  is  never  safe  to 
speak  admiringly  of  either  persons  or  things,  any 
future  accident  or  misfortune  being  certain  to  be 
attributed  to  the  ill-feeling  or  malice  underlying 
the  honeyed  words  of  commendation.  On  the 
eighth  day,  the  mother  goes  to  the  public  baths, 
the  Ebe  Kadin,  or  midwife,  and  a  number  of 
friends  being  invited  to  join  in  the  ablutions  and 
partake  of  luncheon  or  other  refreshments.  The 
company  assemble  at  the  house  and  proceed 
thither  in  procession  to  the  hammatn,  the  baby 
being  carried  in  front  by  the  Ebe  Kadin.  When 
all  the  mysterious  processes  usual  on  such  occa- 
sions have  been  satisfactorily  completed,  the  lady 
is  wrapped  in  her  havln,  or  burnous  of  Turkish 
towelling,  the  fringed  borders  of  which  are 
worked  in  gold  thread,  and  she  proceeds  to  kiss 
the  hands  of  all  the  elderly  ladies  present,  who 
acknowledge  the  salute  with  the  words,  "  May  it 
be  to  your  health ! "  Refreshments  are  offered  at 
intervals  during  all  these  ceremonies,  which  take 
up  the  greater  part  of  the  day. 

The  ceremonies  attending  circumcision,  de- 
scribed in  Chapter  VII.,  also  involve  much  re- 
ceiving and  paying  of  visits  by  the  ladies  of  the 
harem.  But  the  event  which  most  greatly  re- 
joices the  hearts  of  Osmanli  women  of  all  classes 


l02  :  Turkish  Life 

is  a  wedding- dughun.  Much  greater  space  than 
is  at  my  disposal  would  be  necessary  to  describe 
the  elaborate  details  of  the  six-days'  ceremonial 
in  the  harems  respectively  of  the  bride's  and 
bridegroom's  parents,  which  immemorial  custom 
makes  obligatory  on  such  occasions — the  Monday 
carrying  in  state  of  the  bride's  plenishing  to  her 
new  home,  and  the  adornment  with  it  of  the 
nuptial  chamber;  the  Tuesday  procession  to  the 
public  baths;  the  Wednesday  visit  of  the  bride- 
groom's mother  and  ceremony  of  the  Kena,  or 
dyeing  of  the  bride's  finger-  and  toe-nails;  the 
Thursday  procession  of  the  bride  to  the  abode  of 
the  bridegroom,  preceded  by  music,  and  accom- 
panied by  a  great  concourse  of  ladies  in  carriages 
and  men  on  horseback:  and  the  two  succeeding 
days  of  festivity,  during  which  the  newly  wedded 
hanum,  decked  in  her  bridal  array,  receives  the 
crowd  of  friends  and  acquaintances  who  flock  to 
the  house  to  offer  their  congratulations. 

With  regard  to  dress  it  is  difficult  to  say  what 
is  not  worn  indoors  at  the  present  day  by  Os- 
manli  women  of  the  wealthier  classes,  as  so 
many  have,  unfortunately,  either  wholly  or  in 
part,  exchanged  their  own  picturesque  costume 
for  what  they  believe  to  be  Parisian  fashions,  the 
result  being  for  the  most  part  both  ludicrous  and 
lamentable.  Such  costumes  are,  however,  as  a 
rule,  donned  only  for  visiting  or  receptions,  and 
loose  wrappers  are  the  order  of  the  day  for  home 


1     ■> 


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Harem  Life  103 

wear,  especially  in  hot  weather,  when  stockings 
are  also  often  dispensed  with.  The  lower  ranks 
of  slaves,  who  perform  the  more  menial  duties, 
are  always  unshod  indoors,  and  wear  for  the 
most  part  but  one  simple  cotton  garment,  which 
they  tuck  up  into  the  girdle  while  at  work,  leav- 
ing their  legs  exposed  almost  to  the  knee.  Their 
hair,  however,  they  are  most  careful  to  cover 
from  masculine  gaze ;  and  when — as  must  happen 
in  a  small  household  in  which  men-servants  are 
not  kept — their  duties  take  them  into  the  selamlik, 
their  heads  are  further  enveloped  in  veils  of  white 
muslin.  In  the  interior  of  Asia  Minor,  the  out- 
door disguise  of  a  Moslem  woman  is  much  more 
complete  than  in  the  capital  and  the  European 
provinces,  the  upper  part  of  her  face  being  en- 
tirely concealed  by  a  screen  made  of  black  horse- 
hair, and  the  lower  part,  together  with  the  rest 
of  her  head,  being  swathed  in  folds  of  white 
calico.  The  silk  feridje  and  semi-transparent 
yashmak,  traditionally  associated  with  harem  la- 
dies, is  now  seldom  seen  in  the  capital  save  in  a 
closed  brougham,  its  use  having  been  almost  en- 
tirely abandoned  for  street  wear  in  favour  of  the 
tchit-tcharf,  a  garment  which  can  perhaps  be 
best  described  as  two  silken  skirts  of  unequal 
length,  open  in  front,  the  upper  and  shorter 
being  thrown  over  the  head  and  held  or  secured 
under  the  chin.  A  square  piece  of  dark-coloured 
silk  or  muslin,  attached  to  this  with  pins,  hangs 


io4 


Turkish  Life 


over  and  completely  conceals  the  face.  This, 
however,  can  be  thrown  back  at  pleasure,  leav- 
ing the  features  of  the  wearer  completely  ex- 
posed to  view.  And  it  is  observable  that  half 
the  women  one  meets  in  the  streets  of  the  capital 
without  hesitation  avail  themselves  of  this  facility. 


CHAPTER  V 

COUNTRY  LIFE 

IN  Asia  Minor  a  considerable  proportion  of 
agricultural  land  is  held  by  peasant  and 
other  small  proprietors,  Turkish  for  the  most 
part,  but  in  some  localities  Armenian,  and  also 
Greek.  In  Macedonia  landed  property  is  more 
unequally  divided  than  in  other  parts  of  the  Em- 
pire, great  areas  being  united  in  large  estates 
owned  by  native  Beys,  or  by  absentee  landlords, 
who  reside  permanently  in  the  towns,  and  who 
are  represented  by  a  soubashi,  or  agent.  For  in 
Turkey  country  life  offers,  generally  speaking, 
few  attractions  to  either  Turks  or  Christians,  and 
the  prevalence  of  brigandage  and  general  inse- 
curity render  town  life  imperative  for  all  save 
those  whose  livelihood  is  drawn  directly  from 
the  soil,  and  who  have,  consequently,  no  choice 
of  domicile.  The  dimensions,  and  also  the  de- 
gree of  elegance  and  comfort,  of  the  mansions 
on  these  estates  vary  considerably  according  to 
the  means  and  habits  of  the  owner.  Some  of  the 
more  ancient  are  simple  but  spacious  erections 
105 


J 


1 06  Turkish  Life 

in  the  style  of  the  old  Konaks  in  Stamboul, 
while  others  are  in  the  form  of  solidly  built 
quadrangular  towers,  several  stories  high,  with 
windows  in  the  upper  floors,  defended  by  mass- 
ive iron  bars  and  strong  shutters  —  domestic 
fortresses  which  have  frequently  been  called 
upon  to  withstand  the  attacks  of  brigands  and 
other  assailants.  A  high  wall  of  masonry,  roofed 
with  tiles,  encloses  the  garden,  orchard,  and 
farmyard,  the  first  of  which,  even  on  a  tchiftlik 
of  the  better  class,  presents  an  ill-kept,  if  lux- 
uriant, aspect,  while  the  last  abounds  with  reek- 
ing dunghills  and  mud  pools,  amid  which  fowls, 
ducks,  geese,  and  dogs  hold  high  revel. 

When  a  landed  proprietor  pays  a  long  summer 
visit  to  his  estate,  accompanied  by  his  family, 
the  bedding,  carpets,  and  household  necessaries 
generally,  are  brought  from  town,  and  it  is  as- 
tonishing to  see  with  how  little  luggage  a 
Turkish  family  travels  and  makes  itself  comfort- 
able on  such  occasions.  Each  person  will  have 
a  boktcha,  or  bundle-wrap — the  primitive  port- 
manteau before  mentioned — containing  his  or 
her  wearing  apparel;  while  the  articles  for  gen- 
eral use  will  comprise  a  few  lamps  and  candle- 
sticks, a  couple  of  brass  jugs  and  basins,  which 
in  the  morning  and  at  mealtime  make  the  round 
of  the  household,  some  copper  cooking-vessels, 
a  coffee  service,  and  a  few  pieces  of  glass  and 
crockery.     The  ladies  and  their  attendants  travel 


TURKISH   LADY  WEARING  THE  YASHMAK  AND    FERIDJE 


Country  Life  107 

in  some  districts  in  a  fashion  similar  to  the 
cacolet  of  the  Basque  provinces.  A  kind  of 
pannier-seat  is  attached  to  either  side  of  the 
saddle  of  a  mule  or  horse,  and  the  fair  occupants 
are  screened  from  the  rays  of  the  sun  and  the 
gaze  of  the  vulgar  by  semi-circular  tilts  or  awn- 
ings, which  sway,  balloon-like,  with  the  motion 
of  the  steed  as  he  staggers  along  under  the 
weight  of  his  double  burden.  Travelling  is,  in- 
deed, in  Turkey,  no  very  pleasant  matter.  The 
roads  are  generally  in  a  deplorable  state — knee- 
deep  in  dust  in  summer,  and  in  winter  full  of 
treacherous  holes.  Bridges  are  few  and  far  be- 
tween, and,  as  a  rule,  out  of  repair,  and  fording, 
though  easy  enough  in  the  dry  season,  offers 
considerable  danger  after  rain. 

The  way  in  which  an  absentee  proprietor 
spends  his  time  when  on  an  occasional  visit  to 
his  estate  naturally  depends  upon  his  pecuniary 
means  and  personal  tastes.  A  sportsman  will 
occasionally  have  a  battue,  or  coursing  party,  or 
go  out  with  his  sons,  guests,  and  servants  for  a 
day's  expedition  in  quest  of  more  distant  game — 
deer  and  boar  on  the  hills,  or  snipe  and  quail  in 
the  marshlands.  His  duties  as  landlord  are  con- 
fined to  regulating  accounts  with  his  agent, 
hearing  and  deciding  cases  between  that  func- 
tionary and  the  tenants,  giving  instructions  for 
future  farming  operations,  and,  lastly,  realising  the 
profits.     As  to  improving  the  soil,  introducing 


108  Turkish  Life 

modern  and  labour-saving  machinery,  building 
model  cottages,  and  otherwise  ameliorating  the 
moral  and  material  condition  of  his  tenants — 
these  are  things  that  do  not  enter  into  the  philo- 
sophy of  a  Turkish  landed  proprietor. 

In  the  mean  time,  the  Bey's  womenkind  con- 
trive to  amuse  themselves  in  their  own  fashion 
during  their  annual  villeggiatura.  Turkish  wo- 
men, as  I  have  already  said,  are  passionately  fond 
of  the  open  air,  and  when  in  the  country  spend  a 
great  part  of  every  day  in  roaming  freely  about  in 
the  most  neglige  of  costumes,  picnicking,  singing, 
and  amusing  themselves  according  to  their  wont. 
Included  in  the  "  house-party  "  are  generally  a 
number  of  relatives,  who  lend  their  help  in  pre- 
paring the  stores  of  winter  provisions  carried 
back  to  town  by  the  family.  These  comprise 
tomato-sauce  and  pickles  of  various  kinds,  a 
kind  of  molasses  made  from  grape-juice,  mac- 
aroni pastes  for  soups  and  other  dishes,  fruit 
syrups  for  sherbet,  and  the  great  variety  of 
elegant  and  carefully  prepared  sweets  which 
are  served  to  harem  visitors  on  great  occasions ; 
for  the  kiler,  as  the  storeroom  for  provisions  is 
called,  is  a  very  important  department  of  every 
Oriental  household.  Here,  besides  the  above- 
mentioned  confections,  oil,  honey,  wine,  and 
other  liquids  are  stored  for  the  winter  in  great 
jars  of  red  earthenware,  which  recall  those  in 
which  the   Forty  Thieves  were   hidden,  or  in 


Country  Life  109 

quaintly  shaped  flasks  flanked  by  sacks  of  rice, 
flour,  nuts,  and  dried  fruits  of  all  kinds  for  winter 
consumption. 

These  large  estates  belonging  to  absentee 
landlords  are  cultivated  to  a  great  extent  on 
what  is  called  in  France  the  metayer  system,  the 
landlord  providing  the  seed-corn  in  the  first  in- 
stance, while  the  peasant,  who  also  finds  his  own 
yoke  of  oxen  or  buffaloes,  performs  all  the  la- 
bour. When  the  harvest  has  been  reaped,  the 
seed  for  the  next  season  set  aside,  and  the  tithe 
deducted,  the  remainder  of  the  produce  is  shared 
with  the  proprietor.  If  equitably  carried  out, 
this  arrangement  is  by  no  means  an  unfavourable 
one  for  the  yeradji,  as  the  peasants  working  un- 
der this  system  are  called.  In  Turkey,  however, 
"  might"  is  but  too  often  "  right,"  and  the  tiller 
of  the  soil  frequently  gets  but  an  inadequate  re- 
turn for  his  labour.  When  the  grain  has  been 
cut,  it  may  not  be  removed  from  the  field  until 
the  tithe-collector  has  been  pleased  to  come  and 
inspect  the  crop,  no  matter  what  weather  may 
threaten,  or  what  depredations  be  committed 
by  the  immense  flocks  of  birds  that  are  robbing 
the  peasant  of  his  profit.  The  computation  of 
shares  is  also  too  often  very  unfairly  made.  A 
certain  number  of  sheaves — forty,  perhaps,  of 
the  finest  and  heaviest — are  threshed  separately, 
and  the  seed  for  the  next  year,  the  tithes,  and 
the  landlord's  share  are  deducted  according  to 


no  Turkish  Life 

this  standard,  which  leaves  the  yeradji  an  un- 
fairly small  portion  of  the  produce.  The  sou- 
bashi,  or  bailiff,  is  also  entitled  to  receive  six 
measures  each  of  barley  and  wheat  for  every 
head  of  cattle  possessed  by  the  peasant.  And 
among  other  burdens  which  press  hardly  upon 
him  are  the  payment  of  taxes,  the  frequent  quar- 
tering in  his  cottage — especially  if  near  a  high- 
road— of  ^aptiehs  and  soldiers,  and  the  obligation 
of  performing  statute  labour  whenever  called 
upon,  often  with  disastrous  results  to  farm-labour 
and  damage  to  carts  and  implements.  It  is 
hardly  surprising  that  the  yeradji,  under  all  these 
unfavourable  conditions,  is  generally  more  or 
less  in  debt  to  his  landlord,  who  on  his  side  has 
frequently  embarrassments  enough  of  his  own. 
When  one  of  these  agricultural  estates  changes 
hands,  any  yeradji  who  may  be  in  debt  to  the 
landlord  is  transferred  with  it  in  a  sort  of  serf- 
dom, terminable  only  on  his  paying  up  his  ar- 
rears. Farm  accounts  are  still  generally  kept  by 
means  of  chetolas,  notched  sticks,  a  primitive 
method  of  computation  which  offers  great  facil- 
ities for  the  commission,  wittingly  or  unwit- 
tingly, of  errors.  And  if,  on  the  one  hand,  the 
superabundance  of  rigidly  observed  feast  days — 
183  in  the  year! — proves  a  hindrance  to  the 
Christian  yeradji  s  freeing  himself  from  debt,  the 
unscrupulous  manner  in  which  the  proprietor  or 
his  agent  reckons  accounts  constitutes  a  further 


Country  Life  til 

obstacle  to  the  breaking  of  the  chain   which 
binds  him  to  the  soil. 

There  are,  however,  in  many  parts  of  Turkey, 
as  already  remarked,  a  considerable  number  of 
so-called  "head  villages,"  or  "free  villages," 
the  lands  adjoining  which  are  owned  and  tilled 
by  peasant  proprietors.  Though  perhaps  in 
some  districts  less  flourishing  now  than  formerly, 
owing  to  changes  in  the  forest  regulations  and  to 
the  exactions  of  local  officials,  the  inhabitants  of 
these  villages  live  under  far  more  favourable  con- 
ditions than  the  yeradjis,  and  are  in  some  cases, 
notwithstanding  the  extortions  of  the  tithe-  and 
tax-collector,  comparatively  wealthy  and  prosper- 
ous. But  the  taxes  on  agricultural  produce  are 
so  heavy  in  themselves,  and  so  iniquitously  in- 
creased by  the  extortions  of  the  local  officials, 
that  a  farmer  or  vine-grower,  finding  the  dues 
required  of  him  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  value 
of  the  produce,  will  often  destroy  a  standing 
crop  or  leave  a  great  portion  of  his  land  untilled. 
The  small  agriculturist  in  Turkey  is,  indeed,  per- 
haps the  most  highly  taxed  individual  in  the 
world.  The  taxes  may  be  demanded  at  any  time 
during  the  year,  and  perhaps  more  than  once. 
The  Imperial  taxes  are  also  for  the  most  part 
farmed,  and  all  the  expenses  of  their  collection,  to 
say  nothing  of  the  tax-farmer's  profit,  are  added 
to  the  burden  of  the  agriculturist.  Very  fre- 
quently, too, — though  this  is  quite  illegal, — the 


ii2  Turkish  Life 

collecting  is  done  by  soldiers  or  ^aptiehs,  men 
whose  pay,  small  as  it  is,  is  months  in  arrear, 
and  who  consequently  have  to  "fend  for  them- 
selves." As  to  the  assessment,  the  system  pur- 
sued is  a  masterpiece  of  simplicity.  The 
question  is  not  how  much  such  and  such  a 
village  ought  to  pay,  according  to  the  number 
of  men  it  may  contain,  but  how  much  it  can 
pay,  rich  villages  being  called  upon  to  make 
up  the  deficit  of  those  in  less  prosperous  circum- 
stances. This  point  settled  by  the  powers  that 
be,  the  village  council  of  landowners  responsible 
for  the  payment  of  the  lump  sum  meet  to  ap- 
portion to  each  householder  of  the  community 
his  share  of  the  common  burden.  Seated  cross- 
legged  on  a  mat  or  on  rush-bottomed  stools  un- 
der a  leafy  plane  tree,  or  in  the  shadow  of  the 
mosque  or  church,  the  village  fathers  and  their 
scribes,  in  coarse,  baggy  breeches,  coloured  shirts, 
and  ample  waist-shawls,  discuss  the  financial 
position  of  their  neighbours,  and  allot  to  each 
what  they  consider  his  rightful  portion  of  the 
tax.  The  council  is,  however,  collectively  re- 
sponsible for  the  taxes  due  from  each  house- 
holder, and  bound  to  make  up  all  deficits. 

Notwithstanding  the  great  fertility  of  soil  and 
the  climatic  conditions,  which  allow  of  the  culti- 
vation of  the  products  of  both  the  Old  and  the 
New  World,  and  a  coast-line  of  eleven  hundred 
miles,  agriculture  is  in  Turkey  in  a  most  back- 


Country  Life  113 

ward  state.  The  explanation  of  this  is  hardly  to 
be  found  in  any  peculiarity  of  the  Ottoman  char- 
acter, which,  though  warlike  and  pastoral,  is  also 
agricultural — but  in  a  variety  of  causes,  the  chief 
of  which  consists  in  the  forms  of  land  tenure, 
other  contributing  causes  being  the  want  of 
scientific  knowledge,  want  of  hands  and  capital, 
and  want  of  means  of  communication.  There 
are  no  great  waterways  as  in  Russia;  railways 
as  yet  are  only  in  their  infancy;  and  "the  ship 
of  the  desert "  still  swings  his  slow  way  into 
Smyrna  over  the  Caravan  Bridge  with  great 
bales  of  produce  from  the  interior,  raw  cotton 
and  wool,  vallonia,  jute,  hemp,  hides,  and  cereals. 
Large  tracts  of  land,  too,  remain  uncultivated,  or 
have  fallen  out  of  cultivation,  the  quantity  of  corn 
being,  it  is  computed,  but  a  tenth  of  what  the 
country  might  yield.  To  take  one  example — 
out  of  a  tract  of  land,  six  hundred  miles  square, 
lying  north  of  the  town  of  Karaman  in  Asia 
Minor,  fifty  square  miles  only  are  cultivated. 

Throughout  Turkey  generally,  agriculture  is 
carried  on  by  native  farmers  in  most  primitive 
fashion,  and  with  the  aid  of  instruments  the 
most  archaic.  No  regular  system  of  rotation  of 
crops  is  observed  by  the  peasant  farmers,  though 
on  large  estates  the  ordinary  rule  for  rich  lands  is 
two  crops  of  wheat  to  one  of  oats,  then  fallow  one 
or  more  years,  when  wheat,  followed  by  sesame, 
is  again   sown.      In   Macedonia,  where   arable 


j 


114  Turkish  Life 

land  abounds,  it  is  allowed  to  be  fallow  more 
frequently.  The  only  dressing  the  fields  owned 
by  natives  receive  is  the  treading  of  the  sheep  in 
spring  and  autumn;  but  the  soil  is  naturally  so 
fertile,  and  the  crops  ripen  so  early,  especially  in 
the  southern  provinces,  that  a  bad  harvest  is  of 
rare  occurrence.  The  ground  is  broken  to-day, 
as  it  was  two  thousand  years  ago,  by  the  clumsy, 
one-handled,  wooden  Pelasgian  plough  drawn  by 
a  yoke  or  team  of  buffaloes;  and  in  some  places 
the  grain  is  merely  scattered  over  the  stubble 
and  ploughed  in.  Threshing  is  done  in  equally 
primitive  fashion.  The  unbound  sheaves  are 
laid  on  the  threshing-floor  of  beaten  earth,  and 
over  them  is  driven  round  and  round  a  team  of 
three  or  four  ponies  who  draw  after  them  a 
heavy  piece  of  wood  studded  with  flints  on 
which  stands  the  driver,  generally  a  young  girl. 
This  process,  besides  threshing  the  corn,  breaks 
the  straw  into  short  lengths  ready  for  cattle 
feeding.  The  grain  is  then  winnowed  by  being 
thrown  up  in  the  air  with  wooden  shovels. 

The  cereals  chiefly  raised  are  wheat  and 
barley,  maize,  rye  and  oats,  sesame  and  canary 
seed,  and  in  some  districts  rice.  Grapes  are  also 
grown  wherever  the  soil  and  climate  are  suit- 
able, and  the  numerous  vineyards,  large  and 
small,  afford  employment  for  the  greater  part  of 
the  year  to  a  large  section  of  the  rural  popula- 
tion.    A  considerable  proportion  of  the  produce 


Country  Life  115 

is  consumed  on  the  spot  or  sent  to  market  in  the 
towns  and  cities,  the  rest  being  converted  into 
"Sultana"  raisins  for  exportation,  or  made  into 
excellent  wine,  of  which  there  are  several  varie- 
ties, the  most  esteemed  being  the  red  Niausta 
(from  the  town  of  that  name  in  Macedonia),  a 
kind  of  sherry  produced  near  Smyrna,  and  the 
sweet  "Samian  "  of  which  Byron  sang,  made  in 
the  /Egean  island  of  Samos. 

Silk  culture,  too,  as  a  village  industry,  is  carried 
on  to  a  considerable  extent  both  in  European  and 
/  Asiatic  Turkey.  When  operations  are  on  a  large 
scale,  the  silkworm  nurseries  are  often,  for  greater 
convenience,  located  in  the  mulberry  plantations, 
which  not  infrequently  extend  over  several  acres. 
This  profitable  industry  of  rearing  and  feeding  the 
silkworms  begins  in  spring,  as  soon  as  the  trees 
are  in  leaf,  and  lasts  for  about  two  months. 
The  work  connected  with  it,  tedious  and  la- 
borious as  it  is,  is  generally  undertaken  by  the 
women.  Tobacco  also  is  extensively  grown  in 
Macedonia,  Thrace,  and  elsewhere,  and  its  culti- 
vation and  manufacture  afford  employment  to 
both  peasants  and  townsfolk,  especially  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Drama  and  Cavalla,  where 
Moslems  and  Christians  of  both  sexes  may  be 
seen  squatting  side  by  side  in  the  factories  of  the 
tobacco  merchants,  native  and  foreign,  where  the 
leaves  of  the  fragrant  weed  are  dried,  sorted,  and 
otherwise  manipulated  before  being  packed  in 


n6  Turkish  Life 

bales  for  exportation.  For  poverty  is  a  more 
potent  factor  than  even  racial  and  religious  preju- 
dice, and  the  harvesting  of  any  important  product 
— such  as  tobacco,  grapes,  olives — brings  to- 
gether a  heterogeneous  crowd  of  labourers  having 
nothing  in  common  but  dire  necessity. 

The  villages  of  the  yeradjis  on  these  large 
estates  present  for  the  most  part  a  pitiably  pov- 
erty-stricken appearance,  composed  as  they  are 
of  hovels  built  of  mud  and  wattle.  On  the  plains 
generally,  indeed,  the  houses  of  the  peasantry 
are  constructed  of  these  materials,  and  it  is  only 
in  the  hill  districts  that  stone-built  cottages  are 
met  with,  whether  their  inhabitants  are  Greeks, 
Bulgarians,  or  Turkish.  In  the  better  class  of 
cottages,  however,  the  mud  walls  are  white- 
washed within  and  without,  the  windows  are 
glazed,  and  the  roof  is  covered  with  tiles  instead 
of  reed-thatch,  while  the  interior  may  consist  of 
three  good-sized  apartments, — living-room,  bed- 
room, and  storeroom.  The  earthen  floor  is 
beaten  hard  and  covered  with  coarse  native  mat- 
ting and  home-woven  rugs,  a  few  stools,  a 
quaint  walnut-wood  coffer  or  two,  and  a  low 
divan  constituting  all  the  furniture. 

On  the  ill-paved  and  often  mud-pooled  market- 
place, which  usually  occupies  the  centre  of  Turk- 
ish villages  and  small  towns,  the  peasants  collect 
from  the  neighbouring  country  with  their  sheep 
and  cattle,  and  their  carts  and  beasts  of  burden 


Country  Life  117 

laden  with  produce  of  all  kinds  for  sale  or  bar- 
ter, Bulgarian  weavers  with  rolls  of  cloth,  Gipsies 
with  sieves,  coarse  baskets,  and  other  articles  for 
domestic  use.  Surrounding  the  square  are  the 
bakai's,  or  chandler's  shop,  the  butcher's  stall, 
and,  of  course,  the  shanty  which  does  duty  as  a 
cafe,  at  which  the  market-folk  refresh  them- 
selves in  frugal  fashion  and  hear  the  news  of  the 
countryside,  perhaps  also  some  faint  echo  of 
political  events  culled  from  a  stray  journal  at 
least  a  month  old.  Close  by,  in  a  Turkish  vil- 
lage, stands  the  little  whitewashed  mosque  with 
its  cypress-shadowed  cemetery.  At  one  end 
of  the  green  is  the  threshing-floor,  generally 
of  beaten  earth,  but  sometimes  paved,  used  by 
all  the  villagers  in  turn,  and  on  feast-days  by  the 
youths  for  their  wrestling  matches;  and  at  the 
other,  the  village  well,  round  which  the  maidens 
collect  towards  sunset  with  their  large  red 
earthen  water-jars,  unchanged  in  shape  since 
the  days  of  Helen  and  Andromache. 

Every  village  in  Turkey,  both  Moslem  and 
Christian,  is  presided  over  by  a  Kodja-bashi — 
headman,  or  mayor — who  settles  petty  disputes, 
and  is  held  responsible  by  the  authorities  for  the 
good  behaviour  of  his  parishioners.  It  is  also  his 
business,  as  inns  are  non-existent  save  in  large 
towns,  to  provide  lodging  for  travellers  and 
officials  who  may  wish  to  spend  the  night  at  his 
village,  and  to  arrange  for  the  accommodation 


1 18  Turkish  Life 

of  troops  or  laptiehs  passing  through  on  their 
way  from  one  town  to  another.  The  office  of 
Kodja-bashi  naturally  entails  considerable  respon- 
sibility upon  its  holder,  and,  under  the  social 
and  political  conditions  which  obtain  in  Turkey, 
is  frequently  one  of  no  little  difficulty.  It  has, 
however,  no  doubt,  its  compensations,  and  places 
its  possessor  in  a  Christian  village  in  a  position 
superior  to  that  of  the  papa,  as  the  parish  priest 
is  termed,  whose  emoluments  are  almost  en- 
tirely derived  from  the  fees  paid  by  his  flock — 
generally  in  kind — for  baptisms,  weddings,  funer- 
als, and  "  liturgies,"  and  superior  to  that  of  the 
peasant  class  to  which  he  by  birth  belongs. 

The  Imam  of  a  Turkish  village  occupies  a 
position  somewhat  superior  to  that  of  a  Christian 
papa,  having  probably  received  a  fair  education, 
according  to  Turkish  ideas,  in  the  Medresseh  of  a 
provincial  town,  and  his  mosque  possesses  an  en- 
dowment bequeathed  by  some  pious  departed 
Moslem.  Generally,  however,  he  has  to  com- 
bine in  his  own  person  all  the  offices  assigned 
in  a  town  mosque  to  half  a  dozen  different  func- 
tionaries. Five  times  daily  he  ascends  his  little 
minaret  to  call  the  faithful  to  the  performance  of 
their  customary  prayers;  and  his  duty  it  also  is 
to  wash  and  prepare  for  burial  the  bodies  of  his 
male  parishioners,  when  "the  Cupbearer  of  the 
Sphere"  shall  have  bidden  them  to  partake  of 
the  joys  of  the  Moslem  paradise.     But  whether 


THE  GIPSY  SMITH'S  DAUGHTERS 


Country  Life  119 

satisfied  or  not  with  his  condition,  he  has  little 
prospect  of  changing  or  ameliorating  it.  I  re- 
member once  hearing  a  story  of  an  ambitious 
hodja  of  a  village  in  Asia  Minor,  who,  having 
some  ability  as  a  preacher,  hit  upon  the  following 
expedient  for  attaining  a  wider  sphere  of  action 
than  fortune  had  apparently  assigned  him. 
Travelling  to  Constantinople,  where  he  was 
quite  unknown,  he  represented  himself  as  a 
Christian  monk,  who,  convinced  of  the  superior 
merits  of  the  religion  of  Mohammed,  desired  to 
be  received  into  the  fold  of  the  True  Believers. 
The  remarkably  rapid  progress  made  by  this 
convert  in  knowledge  of  the  Koran  and  Moslem 
theology  generally  simply  astounded  his  rever- 
end instructors.  Before  long  he  had  passed  all 
the  usual  examinations  and  taken  a  high  degree, 
and  his  reputation  for  learning  and  eloquence  as 
a  preacher  soon  obtained  for  him  the  post  of 
Mollah  in  the  town  near  which  stood  the  hum- 
ble mesdjid  he  had  previously  served. 
S  Whatever  may  be  the  opinion  of  European 
travellers  and  residents  in  Turkey  as  to  the  char- 
acter of  its  townspeople,  all  who  have  ever 
come  into  personal  contact  with  the  Turkish 
peasantry  have  been  unanimous  in  praise  of  their 
simple  honesty  and  sobriety,  their  passive  con- 
tentment and  dignified  resignation  to  the  will  of 
Allah  and  their  Padishah,  and  their  passionate 
attachment  to  the  land  which  has  been  bought 


i2o  Turkish  Life 

by  the  blood  of  their  forefathers.  Physically,  a 
Turkish  peasant  is  well-built,  healthy,  and,  ow- 
ing no  doubt  to  his  habitual  abstemiousness, 
possesses  remarkable  powers  of  endurance.  With 
him  days  and  seasons  succeed  each  other  in  a 
dull  round  of  laborious  and  frugal  monotony,  for, 
unlike  his  Christian  neighbours,  he  has  no  weekly 
dance,  no  frequently  recurring  village  feast,  and 
but  little  music  to  vary  the  uniformity  of  his  life. 
His  cup  of  coffee,  taken  before  the  labours  of 
the  day  begin  and  at  their  close,  and  his  poor 
tchibouk  at  intervals,  constitute  for  him  all  the 
luxuries  of  life.  His  cottage,  often  a  mere  mud 
hovel,  though  clean,  is  comfortless  enough,  cold 
in  winter  and  hot  in  summer,  and  contains  little 
in  the  way  of  furniture  beyond  a  scanty  supply 
of  bedding  and  a  few  rugs,  stools,  and  cooking 
utensils.  Turkish  villages,  indeed,  throughout 
the  Empire  wear  a  much  more  impoverished  and 
much  less  animated  aspect  than  do  those  of  their 
Christian  neighbours.  For  a  Turkish  peasant's 
wife  and  daughters  take  a  less  active  part,  as  a 
rule,  in  field  and  farm  work  than  do  the  Christ- 
ian women,  and  are  never  seen,  like  them,  spin- 
ning, knitting,  and  sewing  at  their  cottage  doors. 
Moslems  and  Christians  certainly  suffer  alike  from 
the  arbitrary  exactions  of  their  common  enemy, 
the  tax-gatherer.  But  the  Turkish  peasantry, 
besides  lacking  the  active  aid  of  their  women 
folk,  are  in  addition  terribly  handicapped  by  the 


Country  Life  121 

conscription,  from  which  the  Christian  popula- 
tion of  Turkey  has  been  exempt  since  the  dis- 
continuance, in  1675,  of  the  Tribute  of  Children 
for  the  Janissary  Corps,  paying  in  lieu  thereof  the 
kharatch,  or  poll-tax,  a  comparatively  light  im- 
position. For  the  abolition  of  the  feudal  system, 
and  also  of  the  Janissary  Corps,  at  the  beginning 
of  the  last  century,  and  the  placing  of  the  army 
on  a  European  footing,  created  a  demand  for  sol- 
diers from  the  peasant  class  unknown  in  previous 
centuries;  while  the  method  pursued  in  levying 
conscripts  often  results  in  acts  of  grave  injustice 
to  this  submissive  and  loyal  section  of  the  popu- 
lation. The  agricultural  communities  conse- 
quently labour  under  the  permanent  disadvantage 
of  being  deprived  of  the  co-operation  of  a  con- 
siderable proportion  of  their  younger  and  more 
energetic  members;  and  when,  in  time  of  war, 
the  majority  of  the  able-bodied  are,  as  reservists, 
also  called  away,  the  situation  becomes  one  of 
real  hardship.  The  old  men,  the  raw  boys,  and 
the  women — unused  to  labour  and  consequently 
incapable  of  coping  with  it  —  struggle  on  for  a 
time  as  best  they  can,  often  finding  themselves 
at  length  compelled  to  abandon  their  holdings 
and  take  refuge  in  some  neighbouring  town  or 
larger  village.  Their  little  homesteads  thus  de- 
serted soon  fall  into  ruin,  and  their  untitled  fields 
are  added  to  the  vast  waste  lands  of  the  Empire. 
However,  there  is  grave  reason  to  fear  that  the 


y 


122  Turkish  Life 

larger  villages  will,  in  time,  share  the  fate  of  the 
hamlets,  unless  a  sound  administration  speedily 
succeeds  to  the  present  anarchy,  and  introduces 
such  radical  changes  as  will  permanently  amelio- 
rate the  condition  of  the  peasantry,  who  consti- 
tute morally  and  physically  the  backbone  of  the 
nation. 

I  have  said  that  a  bad  harvest  is  of  rare  occur- 
rence in  Turkey;  but  there  are,  of  course,  ex- 
ceptions, and  every  dozen  years  or  so  there  is 
more  or  less  of  a  drought,  when  the  crops  in  the 
great  open  plains  perish  for  want  of  moisture, 
and  the  cattle  die  by  hundreds  unless  driven  off 
in  time  and  sold  much  under  their  value  to 
those  living  in  more  fortunate  localities.  At 
such  times  it  is  customary  for  both  Moslems  and 
Christians  to  invoke  the  aid  of  the  celestial  pow- 
ers by  special  ceremonies,  as  in  former  days 
the  pagan  rain-god  was  propitiated  in  the  same 
localities  in  times  of  drought.  With  the  Turks 
all  the  children  attending  the  mektebs,  or  parish 
schools,  march  in  procession,  headed  by  their 
hodjas,  through  the  streets  of  the  towns  to  the 
open  plain,  where,  after  spreading  their  carpets, 
they  offer  up  prayers,  interspersed  with  many 
prostrations.  After  continuing  this  religious  ex- 
ercise for  nearly  an  hour,  the  children  fall  into 
rank  again,  wailing,  as  they  trail  slowly  back  to 
the  town,  a  monotonous  and  weirdly  melancholy 
chant.     In  Macedonia  a  procession  of  Christian 


Country  Life  123 

children  visit  all  the  wells  and  springs  of  the 
neighbourhood.  At  their  head  walks  a  girl 
called  the  Perperia  —  generally  a  Gipsy,  by  the 
way — adorned  with  flowers,  who  at  every  halt- 
ing-place is  drenched  with  water  by  her  compan- 
ions, who  sing  a  Greek  invocation  beginning: 

"  Perperia,  all  fresh  bedewed, 
Freshen  all  the  neighbourhood. 
By  the  woods,  on  the  highway, 
As  thou  goest  to  God  now  pray: 
Oh,  my  God,  upon  the  plain 
Send  Thou  us  a  still  small  rain, 
That  the  fields  may  fruitful  be, 
Vines  grape-laden  we  may  see,"  etc. 


CHAPTER  VI 

LIFE  AT  YILDIZ  KIOSK 

THE  vast  assemblage  of  buildings  still  retain- 
ing the  name  of  the  modest  villa  which 
Sultan  Abdul  Hamid,  soon  after  his  accession, 
chose  as  his  abode  in  preference  to  any  of  the 
palaces  on  the  shores  of  the  Bosphorus,  is  sur- 
rounded on  every  side  by  extensive  wooded 
grounds,  forming  a  sort  of  park  enclosed  within 
high  walls,  flanked  at  intervals  by  ugly  yellow 
barracks,  in  which  are  quartered  the  troops, 
Arabian,  Albanian,  and  Turkish,  chosen  to  watch 
over  the  safety  of  the  mighty  Padishah.  Beyond 
these,  again,  the  hills  and  valleys  are  occupied 
by  blockhouses  and  sentry-boxes,  while  along 
the  shore  of  the  Bosphorus  stretches  the  long 
frontage  of  the  palace  of  Tcheragan,  in  which 
the  ex-Sultan,  poor  mad  Murad  Effendi,  has  for 
twenty-seven  years  lived  the  solitary  existence 
of  a  strictly  guarded  captive,  unapproachable  by 
any  save  those  attached  to  his  immediate  serv- 
ice and  devoted  to  the  interests  of  the  reigning 
Sultan.  In  common  with  the  rest  of  the  royal 
124 


Life  at  Yildiz  Kiosk  125 

palaces,  Yildiz  Kiosk  is  practically,  like  the  abodes 
of  private  individuals,  divided  into  haremlik  and 
selamlik,  connected  by  the  mabeyn.  Here  the 
buildings  at  the  top  of  the  hill,  in  which  the 
officials  in  waiting  and  a  host  of  functionaries 
and  their  attendants  have  their  quarters,  constitute 
the  selamlik;  the  palatial  edifice  containing  the 
Sultan's  private  apartments  forms  the  mabeyn, 
and  is  generally  so  termed;  while  the  ladies  of 
the  harem  are  accommodated  in  a  mansion  con- 
nected with  it  by  a  long  corridor,  and  agreeably 
situated  in  the  Imperial  demesne,  surrounded  by 
delightful  flower-gardens,  artificial  lakes,  and 
woods  intersected  with  winding  paths  leading  to 
various  pleasure-kiosks.  In  the  Imperial  park 
are  situated  also  the  Sultan's  private?  theatre  and 
various  detached  pavilions  and  villas.  One  of 
the  latter,  styled  the  Palace  Merassim,  has  been 
specially  erected  and  furnished  for  the  reception 
of  European  princes  of  the  blood. 

The  Commander  of  the  Faithful,  as  is  well 
known,  has  a  great  repugnance  to  going  beyond 
the  walls  of  his  private  domain,  and  is  thus  en- 
abled to  fulfil  all  the  duties  of  hospitality  and 
courtesy  to  his  occasional  royal  guests  without 
exposing  his  Imperial  person  to  the  gaze  of  the 
vulgar  and  the  danger  of  assassination,  of  which 
he  is  believed  to  live  in  constant  dread.  On  cer- 
tain occasions,  however,  custom  and  precedent 
oblige  the  Padishah  to  do  violence  to  his  desire 


126  Turkish  Life 

for  seclusion,  and  to  show  himself  to  his  loyal 
subjects,  these  occasions  being  termed  generally 
Selamlik,  from  selam,  "salutation."  It  has 
been  the  immemorial  custom  for  Turkish  Sultans 
to  proceed  in  state  to  one  of  the  principal  mosques 
of  the  capital  for  the  performance  of  the  midday 
Friday  prayers;  and  no  consideration  of  any  kind 
is  allowed  to  prevent  the  present  sovereign's  ful- 
filling this  religious  obligation,  as  his  failure  to 
show  himself  on  this  day  would  give  rise  to  ru- 
mours of  his  illness  or  death,  and  consequent 
political  complications.  And  however  indis- 
posed the  Padishah  may  be,  at  the  important 
hour  he  is  invariably  reported  by  his  entourage 
to  be  in  the  best  of  health,  and  he  nerves  himself 
for  his  weekly  public  appearance.  But  even  on 
these  occasions  Sultan  Abdul  Hamid  deviates 
from  the  habits  of  his  ancestors,  and  instead  of 
making  a  weekly  progress  through  the  streets 
of  his  capital  amid  the  acclamations  of  loyal  sub- 
jects, he  prefers  to  perform  the  Friday  namai  in 
the  private  mosque  bearing  his  own  name,  built 
some  years  ago  in  the  palace  precincts.  From 
the  gate  of  Yildiz  descends  a  steep  road,  having 
on  one  side  annexes  of  the  palace,  terminating  in 
a  pavilion,  from  the  windows  of  which  the  for- 
eign ambassadors  and  other  distinguished  persons 
and  their  friends  may  witness  the  ceremony.  A 
second  pavilion  a  little  lower  down,  which  for- 
merly accommodated  unofficial  European  spec- 


Life  at  Yildiz  Kiosk  127 

tators,  has  lately  been  demolished.  On  the  other 
side  is  a  railed-in  garden  surrounding  the  mosque, 
new  and  white,  of  a  pseudo-Oriental  style  of 
architecture. 

Some  time  before  midday  on  Friday  the  roads 
surrounding  the  mosque  are  filled  with  troops 
belonging  to  the  first  and  second  army  divisions. 
The  first  to  arrive  are  the  battalions  of  the 
Albanian  or  Arab  Zouaves,  with  their  quaintly 
twisted  red  turbans,  who  take  up  their  posi- 
tions near  the  palace  gates;  after  them  come 
the  marines,  followed  by  battalions  of  Anatolian 
infantry,  who  form  in  lines  several  deep  on  either 
side  of  the  roadway,  while  cavalry  regiments 
take  up  their  positions  behind  them,  flanked 
again  by  gendarmes  in  couples.  The  Turkish 
populace,  composed  chiefly  of  women,  and  in- 
terspersed largely  with  palace  spies,  occupies 
every  available  inch  of  the  roadway  on  the  lower 
side  of  the  mosque,  but  can  nowadays  see  no- 
thing of  the  ceremony  beyond  the  arrival  and 
departure  of  the  troops;  and  it  is,  consequently, 
impossible  for  any  one  to  approach  and  present 
petitions  personally  to  the  Sultan,  as  in  previous 
reigns  had  always  been  the  privilege  of  his  sub- 
jects during  his  progress  to  and  from  the  mosque 
on  Fridays.  Students  of  the  military  colleges 
are,  it  is  said,  forbidden  to  be  present,  and  a 
sharp  lookout  is  kept  by  the  spies  on  all  Turks 
of  the  better  class  who  may  venture  to  mingle 


128  Turkish  Life 

with  the  crowd.  Strains  of  military  music  fill 
the  air;  officers  in  smart,  well-fitting  uniforms 
ride  to  and  fro  on  beautiful  Arabs;  well-ap- 
pointed carriages  pass,  conveying  high  civil 
functionaries  to  the  mosque,  or  members  of 
the  various  foreign  embassies  and  legations 
to  the  pavilion.  Presently  broughams  arrive 
from  the  palace,  bearing  uniform-clad  princes 
and  white-veiled  Sultanas;  and  lastly,  driven  very 
slowly  in  a  smart  landau,  appears  the  Padishah 
himself.  A  bugle  sounds,  and  simultaneously 
from  a  thousand  throats  the  cry  of  "  Padishahim 
chok  Tasha!  "'(•*■'  Long  live  the  Sultan!  "),  thrice 
repeated,  greets  the  Commander  of  the  Faithful. 
Salaaming  continually,  in  acknowledgment  of  the 
cheers  and  salutes,  Abdul  Hamid  passes  down 
the  road  and  through  the  gates  to  the  stairway 
leading  to  the  private  entrance  and  saloon,  a 
passing  glimpse  only  being  caught  of  his  keen, 
astute,  yet  dignified  face,  with  its  longish,  hooked 
nose,  and  beaid  and  moustache  already  quite 
grey.  On  alighting,  the  Commander  of  the 
Faithful  is  received  and  surrounded  by  a  little 
crowd  of  obsequious  dignitaries,  civil  and  mil- 
itary, and  having  mounted  the  short  flight  of 
carpeted  stairs,  he  courteously  turns  before  enter- 
ing to  acknowledge  with  the  military  salute  the 
homage  of  his  troops,  who  again  cry,  "Long 
live  the  Sultan!"  At  this  moment,  in  accord- 
ance with  a  curious  ancient  usage,  half  a  dozen 


Life  at  Yildiz  Kiosk  129 

dwarfs,  a  number  of  whom  are  still  maintained 
in  the  old  Serai,  cry  out  in  chorus  the  admoni- 
tion, "Be  not  overproud,  my  Padishah!  there  is 
also  One  above  you,  even  Allah!" 

Half  an  hour  or  so  elapses,  during  which  the 
waiting  multitude — or,  at  least,  that  section  of  it 
sufficiently  well  placed  —  has  leisure  to  contem- 
plate the  wide  view  of  the  Bosphorus  and  Stam- 
boul  extending  below  to  the  south;  to  admire 
the  half-dozen  superb  saddle-horses  which  have 
been  led  behind  the  Imperial  carriage;  and  to 
watch  the  Sahas,  or  regimental  water-carriers, 
distribute  the  contents  of  their  curious  leathern 
jacks  among  the  soldiery.  Presently  the  battal- 
ions are  called  to  attention,  form  again  into  line, 
and  march  past  the  northern  side  of  the  mosque 
before  the  Sultan,  who  is  stationed  at  one  of  the 
saloon  windows.  A  stir  follows  at  the  door, 
the  Padishah  emerges,  and  now,  seated  in  a  vic- 
toria drawn  by  a  pair  of  spirited  greys,  the  reins 
of  which  he  himself  holds,  again  passes,  closely 
surrounded  by  staff-officers  on  horseback  and 
palace  attendants  on  foot,  and  disappears  through 
the  gates  of  Yildiz  Kiosk.  In  addition  to  the 
Friday  selamlik  there  are  five  other  occasions  in 
the  course  of  the  year  on  which  the  Sultan  must 
show  himself  in  public.  Two  of  these  are  the 
ceremonies  connected  respectively  with  the  open- 
ing of  the  Greater  and  Lesser  Bairam;  the  others 
are  the  Veneration  of  the  Prophet's  Mantle  in  mid- 


i3°  Turkish  Life 

Ramazan,  the  Mevlud,  or  Birthday  of  the  Prophet, 
and  the  departure  of  the  Caravan  of  Pilgrims  to 
Mekka,  all  of  which  are  elsewhere  described. 

The  Commander  of  the  Faithful  is  no  roi  faine- 
ant. Like  the  humblest  of  his  subjects,  he  rises 
with  the  sun  all  the  year  round,  often  commenc- 
ing his  morning's  work  at  five  o'clock,  after  par- 
taking, with  his  first  cigarette,  of  a  cup  of  coffee 
prepared  in  his  study  by  the  chief  coffee-maker; 
for  the  Sultan  is  a  great  smoker  and  coffee- 
drinker,  and  is  never,  it  is  said,  without  a  cigar- 
ette (made  in  his  presence)  between  his  fingers ; 
and  he  is  followed  everywhere  about  the  palace 
grounds,  when  he  takes  walking  or  riding  exer- 
cise, by  his  cafedji-bashi,  who  carries  the  para- 
phernalia requisite  for  preparing  at  a  moment's 
notice  a  cup  of  his  favourite  beverage.  He  has 
also  his  little  superstitions,  like  most  of  his  an- 
cestors; and  as  it  was  once  prophesied  to  him 
by  a  Gipsy  that  he  would  reign  as  long  as  he 
continued  to  drink  the  water  from  the  springs 
of  Kiathane  in  the  Valley  of  the  Sweet  Waters, 
his  daily  supplies  are  regularly  brought  thence  in 
sealed  jars,  and  no  other  passes  his  'lips.  The 
Sultan  partakes  of  a  light  breakfast  of  eggs  and 
milk  about  six  o'clock;  about  ten  o'clock  he  in- 
dulges in  a  rather  more  substantial  dtjeuner; 
and,  like  the  rest  of  his  subjects,  he  dines  at 
sunset.  The  Imperial  dinner,  which  is  eaten  in 
solitude,  and  served  with  great  state  and  cere- 


Life  at  Yildiz  Kiosk  131 

monial,  consists  of  a  number  of  courses,  all  of  a 
very  simple  character,  as  the  Sultan  is  no  Syba- 
rite, and  for  hygienic  reasons  eschews  rich  dishes, 
though  "for  his  stomach's  sake"  he  follows  St. 
Paul's  advice,  taking  occasionally  a  little  brandy, 
champagne,  or  punch. 

Formerly  the  dishes  for  the  Imperial  table  were 
prepared  in  the  harem  under  the  immediate 
superintendence  of  the  Valide  Sultana  —  as  the 
mother  of  the  reigning  Sultan  is  by  courtesy 
termed  —  and  sent  in  sealed  napkins  to  the  ma- 
beyn.  His  Majesty  Abdul  Hamid,  however, 
having  no  mother  to  watch  over  him,  guards 
against  the  possibility  of  poison  by  having  a 
private  kitchen  for  the  service  of  his  own  table, 
which  is  quite  a  little  fortress,  with  barred  win- 
dows and  a  massive  door.  When  the  Sultan 
intimates  to  his  attendants  that  he  wishes  to 
dine,  a  table  is  placed  before  him  laid  for  one, 
and  the  bread,  water,  and  dishes,  all  enveloped 
in  napkins,  and  sealed  by  the  Kilerdji,  or  Chief 
Steward,  are  carried  in  solemn  procession  from 
the  kitchen  on  trays  by  a  number  of  lackeys;  all 
persons  whom  the  Sultan's  dinner  may  encoun- 
ter on  its  passage  from  the  kitchen  to  the  pre- 
sence bowing  before  it  with  their  hands  clasped 
on  their  stomachs.  The  seals  are  broken  in  the 
Sultan's  presence  and  the  dishes  placed  in  succes- 
sion on  the  table  by  the  Kilerdji,  who  may  pos- 
sibly be   commanded  to  partake  of  the  viands 


132  Turkish  Life 

himself  should  his  Imperial  master  be  suddenly 
seized  with  an  apprehension  of  poison,  and  to  the 
same  motive  is  also  attributed  his  habit  of  feeding 
several  cats  and  dogs  from  his  table.  After  par- 
taking of  one  or  two  of  the  dishes  placed  before 
him,  the  Sultan,  as  a  mark  of  royal  favour, 
names  those  of  his  courtiers  to  whom  he  wishes 
the  rest  to  be  conveyed.  And  on  Friday,  in  the 
midst  of  the  great  military  display  awaiting  the 
Sultan's  appearance  at  the  gates  of  Yildiz  Kiosk, 
one  may  see  palace  attendants  sallying  forth  bear- 
ing dishes  enveloped  in  napkins  tied  at  the  four 
corners,  destined  for  the  Court  dignitaries  their 
Imperial  master  thus  delights  to  honour,  a  num- 
ber of  whom  occupy  private  houses  on  the  hill 
between  Pera  and  Yildiz,  acquired  by  the  Padishah 
in  order  to  prevent  the  European  colony's  spread- 
ing in  the  latter  direction. 

The  intervals  between  these  simple  royal  re- 
pasts are  occupied  chiefly  with  the  transaction 
of  State  business.  Every  Sultan  of  Turkey  has 
been,  theoretically  at  least,  an  autocratic  ruler, 
but  the  degree  of  power  exerted  by  each  of  the 
descendants  of  Othman  has  varied  according  to 
the  vigour  of  his  character  and  the  social  and 
political  conditions  of  his  time.  But  the  present 
reign  has  witnessed  the  most  remarkable  union 
of  all  the  conditions  requisite  for  real  autocracy — 
an  extension  of  the  telegraph  system  throughout 
the  Empire,  an  absence  of  all  elements  capable  of 


Life  at  Yildiz  Kiosk  133 

thwarting  or  resisting  the  sovereign  will,  and  a 
prince  who  scorns  delights  and  spends  laborious 
days  in  controlling  every  detail  of  government. 
Nominally,  the  affairs  of  the  Empire  are  in  the 
hands  of  the  two  Councils — the  Cabinet  Council, 
presided  over  by  the  Grand  Vizier,  and  including 
the  Shekh-ul-Islam  and  most  of  the  Ministers, 
of  whom  there  are  at  present  twelve;  and  the 
Council  of  State,  a  body  somewhat  resembling 
the  English  Privy  Council,  both  of  which  sit  at  the 
Sublime  Porte.  The  office  of  Grand  Vizier  has, 
however,  under  the  present  reign  been  deprived 
of  much  of  the  importance  formerly  attached 
to  it,  when  that  functionary  was  the  sole  recipi- 
ent of  the  Sultan's  delegated  power,  and  stood 
between  him  and  all  the  other  officers  of  State; 
and  Abdul  Hamid  communicates  his  wishes 
directly,  not  only  to  his  Ministers,  but  also  very 
frequently  to  the  heads  of  subordinate  depart- 
ments. Every  vestige  of  executive  authority 
has,  indeed,  been  of  late  years  removed  from  the 
Porte  and  centred  in  Yildiz  Kiosk,  and  the  various 
bureaus  now  there  established  have  usurped  the 
functions  of  every  department  of  the  Porte.  The 
natural  result  of  this  arrangement  has  been 
the  installation  at  the  palace  of  a  vast  body  of 
officials  of  all  grades,  civil  and  military,  between 
whom  and  their  Imperial  master  a  large  staff  of 
secretaries  act  as  intermediaries.  The  courtiers 
and  principal  secretaries  are  the  recipients  of  all 


134  Turkish  Life 

business  connected  with  the  various  State  De- 
partments, and  deal  with  it  after  submitting  it  to 
the  Sultan.  Army  questions  are  settled  by  a 
council  of  military  favourites  instead  of  by  the 
War  Office;  a  secret  information  bureau  usurps 
to  a  great  extent  the  functions  of  the  Minister  of 
Police;  the  duties  of  the  Shekh-ul-Islam  are  per- 
formed by  a  palace  coterie ;  a  political  and  trans- 
lation department,  established  at  Yildiz,  deals, 
instead  of  the  Foreign  Office,  with  questions  of 
Turkey's  relations  with  other  States ;  and  the  post 
and  telegraph  office  established  at  the  palace  is 
the  most  important  in  the  Empire.  If  report 
speaks  truly,  the  reports  of  spies  and  informers  at 
home  and  abroad  occupy  far  more  of  the  Sultan's 
attention  than  legitimate  affairs  of  State,  which 
may  be  either  summarily  and  arbitrarily  dealt 
with,  or  hopelessly  pigeonholed  until  some 
courtier  having  the  Imperial  ear  has  been  bribed 
to  bring  them  to  the  Sultan's  attention.  For  of 
all  privileges  enjoyed  by  a  Turkish  subject,  the 
highest  and  rarest  is  that  of  being  allowed  to  ap- 
pear unsummoned  in  the  Imperial  presence  and 
lay  before  him  a  request.  Any  favourite  who 
obtains  this  privilege  becomes  for  the  moment 
of  greater  importance  than  a  Minister  of  State, 
the  highest  among  whom  have  only  the  right  of 
addressing  their  Padishah  when  summoned  to 
appear  before  him. 

Strenuous  worker  though  he  habitually  is,  the 


Life  at  Yildiz  Kiosk  135 

Sultan  has,  however,  his  hours  of  relaxation. 
His  favourite  diversions  are  drawing,  painting, 
and  wood-carving,  and  he  also  takes  a  practical 
interest  in  chemical  experiments.  Having  all  his 
life  been  fond  of  shooting,  he  has  become  an 
expert  marksman,  and  keeps  his  hand  in  by 
regular  target  practice  and  firing  at  glass  balls 
and  other  moving  objects.  Report  says  that 
fear  of  assassination  has  incited  the  Padishah  to 
attain  this  proficiency  in  the  use  of  firearms,  and 
that  he  always  carries  a  pistol  on  his  person.  In 
his  partiality  for  dramatic  and  operatic  representa- 
tions, Abdul  Hamid  resembles  his  father,  Abdul 
Medjid;  and  to  the  unpretentious  little  theatre  in 
the  palace  grounds  are  permanently  attached  a 
company  of  light  comedians  and  an  operatic 
troupe,  whose  rehearsals  the  Padishah  often  su- 
pervises in  person.  The  foreign  troupes  which 
periodically  make  the  tour  of  the  Levant  are  also 
often  ■  ■  commanded  "  to  appear  at  Yildiz.  Some- 
times high  officials  or  royal  guests  are  invited  to 
witness  these  performances,  but  the  Sultan,  as 
well  as  the  ladies  of  his  family  and  their  attend- 
ants, are  concealed  from  view  by  gilded  lattices, 
and  vouchsafe  no  audible  sign  of  approval  or 
the  reverse,  though  courteous  messages,  accom- 
panied by  presents  or  decorations,  may  be  sent 
to  the  leading  artistes  after  the  performance. 
Foreign  visitors  and  attendants  alone  occupy 
the  parterre,  an  arrangement  which  must  have  a 


136  Turkish  Life 

curious  and  somewhat  chilling  effect  on  actors 
accustomed  to  a  crowded  auditorium.  Like  all 
Orientals,  the  Sultan  has  a  weakness  for  mechan- 
ical toys  and  shows  of  all  sorts;  and  cinemato- 
graphs, phonographs,  musical-boxes,  and  other 
products  of  Western  civilisation  are  in  great 
favour  at  the  Kiosk,  as  well  as  such  Oriental 
shows  as  Karaguez,  the  Turkish  Punch  and 
Judy,  marionettes,  and  shadow-plays. 

A  genuine  Turk  also  in  his  fondness  for  animals 
and  interest  in  them,  the  Sultan  has  stocked  his 
park  with  numbers  of  deer  and  goats,  which  he 
delights  to  feed  with  his  own  hands.  And  in 
addition  to  the  multitudes  of  birds  of  many 
species  which  enliven  the  hills  and  vales,  large 
numbers  of  pigeons  and  parrots,  including  a  col- 
lection presented  to  the  Sultan  by  the  Mikado, 
build  and  brood  in  the  Imperial  demesne;  while 
well-appointed  kennels,  to  which  a  veterinary 
hospital  is  also  attached — a  great  innovation, — 
are  tenanted  by  favourite  dogs  of  various  breeds. 
The  royal  stables  contain  nearly  a  hundred  and 
fifty  horses,  including  some  valuable  thorough- 
bred saddle-horses  reserved  for  his  Majesty's 
own  use,  his  favourite  being  a  white  Arab, 
"  Azyl  "  by  name.  Half  a  dozen  of  these  beauti- 
ful creatures  are  on  Fridays  led  behind  their 
master's  carriage  by  grooms  dressed  in  the  hand- 
some Imperial  livery  of  red  and  gold — baggy 
breeches,  short  jackets  with  hanging  sleeves,  and 


Life  at  Yildiz  Kiosk  137 

full  silken  girdles.  Attached  to  the  stables  is  a 
riding-school  for  the  use  of  the  young  princes, — 
some  of  them  very  interesting  boys, — who  here 
receive  lessons  in  horsemanship,  occasionally 
supervised  by  the  Sultan  from  a  glazed  gallery 
overlooking  the  ring. 

As  has  been  remarked,  Oriental  sentiment  is 
opposed  to  the  formation  of  an  aristocratic  class 
occupying  an  intermediate  position  between  the 
Sovereign  and  the  people;  and  even  the  connec- 
tions of  the  Imperial  family  form  no  such  noble 
or  privileged  class.  The  male  members  of  the 
Imperial  family,  including  the  heir-apparent, — 
who  is  not  the  Sultan's  eldest  son,  but  the  senior 
among  his  relatives, — live  in  compulsory  seclusion 
in  separate  palaces;  and  no  collateral  branches 
of  the  dynasty  which  has  reigned  for  five  cent- 
uries in  Constantinople  appear  to  exist  in  the 
country.  The  Sultan  has  five  young  sons  and  a 
number  of  daughters,  all  of  whom  are  inmates 
of  the  harem,  the  former  going  daily  to  the 
apartments  of  the  selamlik  for  their  lessons.  The 
publication  of  any  list  of  the  princes  and  prin- 
cesses is  strictly  forbidden,  and  almanacs  which 
have  attempted  to  give  such  information  to  the 
world  have  been  promptly  suppressed.  The 
offspring  of  a  Sultan's  daughters  are  ineligible 
for  the  higher  military  offices,  and  the  position 
of  spouse  to  these  ladies  carries  with  it  no  influ- 
ence in  compensation  for  the  unpleasant  domestic 


138  Turkish  Life 

arrangements  to  which  the  husband  of  a  Sultana 
finds  himself  bound;  for  the  daughters  of  Sul- 
tans who,  as  above  mentioned,  also  bear  the 
title  of  Sultana,  assume,  in  virtue  of  their  royal 
birth,  precedence  over  their  husbands,  and  con- 
sider themselves  exempt  from  many  of  the  re- 
straints imposed  by  Oriental  custom  on  their 
sex.  The  whole  system  of  the  Imperial  harem 
has,  indeed,  apparently  been  framed  with  the 
view  of  preventing  the  formation  of  a  hereditary 
aristocratic  class.  The  slaves  who  constitute  its 
inhabitants  have,  in  most  cases,  been  brought  in 
childhood  from  foreign  lands,  and  educated  in 
ignorance  of  everything  outside  the  palace  walls, 
so  that  no  family  can  become  powerful  through 
Imperial  alliances  with  its  daughters.  How  real 
is  the  danger  thus  guarded  against  can  be  judged 
from  the  fact  that,  even  under  the  present  system, 
one  of  the  surest  methods  of  preferment  for  in- 
dividual Turks  is  to  have  some  connection  through 
their  wives  with  the  inmates  of  the  Serai. 

The  Imperial  harem,  though  organised  on  a 
more  moderate  scale  than  in  former  reigns,  still 
contains  many  hundreds  of  women,  who  form  a 
society  apart  from  the  rest  of  the  population,  and 
constitute  a  peculiar  feminine  Court  which  lives 
its  own  life,  has  its  own  traditions,  manners, 
customary  laws,  and  etiquette,  and  even  its  own 
dialect.  For  even  the  speech  of  the  Serailis 
differs  in  pronunciation  and  expression  from  that 


Life  at  Yildiz  Kiosk  139 

of  the  outer  world;  and  their  extraction  can  in- 
variably be  detected  by  this  peculiarity.  But, 
large  as  is  the  number  of  women  thus  brought 
together  under  one  roof,  so  complete  is  the  or- 
ganisation of  the  whole,  and  so  absolute  the  dis- 
cipline, that  there  is  not  the  slightest  confusion 
or  disorder,  each  member  of  the  household  hav- 
ing her  assigned  position  and  functions.  The 
titular  head  of  the  Imperial  harem  is  the  Valide 
Sultana,  the  mother  of  the  reigning  Sultan,  next 
to  whom  ranks  the  mother  of  the  heir-apparent, 
the  Khaseki  Sultana,  and  after  her  the  second, 
third,  and  fourth  Kadin  Effendis,  should  there  be 
so  many.  To  each  of  these  ladies  is  assigned 
a  daira — i.  e.,  a  pension  from  the  Sultan's  Civil 
List,  a  suite  of  apartments,  and  a  train  of  eunuchs 
and  female  slaves.  The  chief  officials  of  the 
Queen-Mother's  Court  are  twelve  in  number, 
and  each  of  these  Ladies  of  the  Household,  or 
Kalfas,  as  they  are  called,  has  under  her  an 
assistant  and  six  or  more  pupils,  who  are  all 
designated  according  to  their  several  depart- 
ments. The  dairas  of  the  other  ladies  are 
formed  on  the  same  model,  but  the  number  of 
attendants  composing  them  varies  according  to 
the  rank  of  their  mistress. 

On  the  accession  of  a  new  Sultan  the  various 
ladies  of  the  deceased  or  deposed  Sultan's  harem, 
together  with  their  immediate  attendants,  are 
removed  to  one  of  the  smaller  palaces  in  order  to 


140  Turkish  Life 

make  room  for  the  household  of  the  young 
Padishah,  whose  mother  is  immediately  elevated 
to  the  rank  of  Valide  Sultana,  and  at  once  in- 
vested with  almost  Imperial  dignity.  The  new 
Sultan  now  requires  all  the  persons  composing  his 
harem,  from  his  wives  down  to  the  lowest  me- 
nials, to  take  an  oath  of  obedience  to  his  mother, 
who  is  henceforth  addressed  or  referred  to  as 
the  "Crown  of  Veiled  Heads,"  a  title  with 
which  every  petition  to  her  must  begin.  No 
one  may  venture  to  sit  uninvited  in  her  presence, 
or  even  to  appear  before  her  unless  an  audience 
has  previously  been  asked  and  granted.  All 
stand  before  her  in  an  Oriental  posture  of  re- 
spect— arms  crossed  on  the  breast,  and  heads 
bent — and  accompany  every  reply  with  a  lowly 
reverence  and  the  words  "Our  Lady."  Otto- 
man Court  etiquette  also  decrees  the  wearing  in 
her  presence,  as  "  full  dress,"  the  simple  intarie, 
or  house-robe,  and  not  even  the  Sultan's  favour- 
ite wife  would  venture  to  enter  the  presence  of 
her  august  mother-in-law  wearing  a  pelisse,  no 
matter  how  cold  the  weather. 

In  the  harem  the  Valide  Sultana  wields  the 
most  absolute  authority;  and  no  one  of  its  in- 
habitants, be  she  Kadin,  Sultana,  or  Ikbal,  can 
leave  her  own  apartments  without  her  permis- 
sion, or  address  any  request  to  the  Sultan,  save 
through  her.  Should  one  of  these  ladies  wish  to 
go  out  for  a  drive,  to  pay  a  visit  to  some  former 


Life  at  Yildiz  Kiosk  141 

Seraili  married  to  a  subject,  or  to  have  a  change 
of  air  at  one  of  the  numerous  Imperial  kiosks, 
a  petition  to  that  effect  must  be  humbly  ad- 
dressed to  the  M  Crown  of  Veiled  Heads,"  and  it 
is  granted  or  rejected,  as  the  case  may  be.  Such 
extreme  authority,  however,  naturally  entails 
much  responsibility,  and  duties  sufficiently  ar- 
duous. In  these  the  Valide  is  greatly  assisted 
by  her  First  Lady  of  the  Treasury,  the  Hasnadar 
Ousta.  This  functionary  ranks,  indeed,  next  to 
the  Empress-Mother  herself.  She  is  generally  a 
woman  of  a  certain  age,  who  has  been  long  in 
the  daira  of  the  Valide,  and  whose  seniority, 
coupled  with  her  devotion  to  the  interests  of  her 
mistress,  has  entitled  her  to  this  important  post. 
Her  office  gives  her  absolute  authority  in  every 
matter  with  which  the  Valide  does  not  choose 
to  concern  herself;  and  should  the  latter  die 
before  her  Imperial  son,  the  Hasnadar  Ousta  suc- 
ceeds during  his  lifetime  to  her  position  and  pre- 
rogatives. At  the  present  moment  the  Imperial 
harem  is  ruled  over  by  the  Hasnadar  Ousta,  the 
mother  of  Sultan  Abdul  Hamid  II.  having  some 
years  ago  been — to  use  an  Oriental  simile — sum- 
moned by  the  "  Cupbearer  of  the  Sphere  "  to  the 
"goodly  plains  in  the  Garden  of  Eden,"  prepared 
"for  all  resigned  and  believing  women." 

Slaves  are,  as  a  rule,  bought  for  the  Palace  when 
very  young,  so  that  they  may  be  suitably  trained 
for  the    positions  they  may   possibly   occupy. 


H2  Turkish  Life 

These  youthful  recruits  are  at  first  all  classed 
under  the  designation  of  adjemis,  or  "rustics." 
The  negro  girls,  and  others  who  give  no  promise 
of  future  beauty,  are  placed  under  the  care  of 
Kalfas  of  inferior  rank,  who  bring  them  up  as 
cooks,  housemaids,  bath-women,  laundry-maids, 
etc.  The  finer  specimens  of  humanity,  who  may 
be  called  upon  to  fill  high  positions,  are  taught 
elegance  of  deportment,  dancing,  singing,  and 
music.  They  are  also  carefully  instructed  in  the 
art  of  adding  to  their  natural  charms,  and  in- 
itiated into  all  the  graceful  formalities  of  Oriental 
etiquette  and  deportment.  A  certain  number 
who  may  be  called  upon  to  fill  the  post  of  secre- 
tary, or  lady  chaplain, — whose  duties  comprise 
reading  the  Koran  aloud,  and  imparting  religious 
instruction, — are  also  taught  to  read  fluently  and 
to  write  with  elegance.  There  is  thus  always  on 
hand  a  supply  of  these  Alaiks,  or  pupil  slaves, 
ready  to  fill  any  vacancy  that  may  occur  in  the 
various  establishments.  Separated  for  ever  from 
her  own  kindred,  the  slave-child  becomes  the 
adopted  daughter  of  the  Kalfa,  who  has  pur- 
chased her  for  the  service  of  her  department,  and 
who  is  at  the  same  time  her  mistress  and  her 
instructor.  Each  Kalfa  takes  a  pride  in  the  ap- 
pearance and  the  efficiency  of  her  pupils,  watches 
over  their  interests  with  the  utmost  vigilance, 
and,  should  marriage  with  an  outsider  be  the 
Kismet  of  any  one  of  them,  does  all  in  her  power 


Life  at  Yildiz  Kiosk  H3 

to  secure  for  her  adopted  child  as  good  a  match 
as  possible.  Both  slaves,  the  Kalfa  and  the  Aliak 
look  to  each  other  for  mutual  support,  and  the 
affection  that  arises  between  them  is  a  touching 
proof  of  the  need  of  the  human  heart  for  sym- 
pathy and  love.  Even  when  a  slave-girl  is  re- 
moved by  marriage  to  another  sphere,  she 
maintains  the  same  intimate  relations  with  her 
adopted  mother,  who  continues  to  watch  with 
undiminished  zeal  over  the  welfare  of  her  former 
pupil. 

The  Kalfas  are  generally  those  slaves  who 
have  not  been  honoured  with  the  notice  of  the 
Sultan,  nor  given  in  marriage  to  a  subject,  and 
have  attained  their  positions  by  right  of  seniority. 
Some  may  still  expect  to  be  married;  but  the 
majority,  contented  with  the  life  which  has  be- 
come habitual  to  them,  and  devoted  to  their  re- 
spective mistresses,  look  for  their  only  promotion 
within  the  walls  of  the  Serai.  These  old  Serailis 
are  the  faithful  guardians  of  all  the  palace  tradi- 
tions and  usages,  which  they  cherish  with  jeal- 
ous conservatism,  and  transmit  to  their  successors 
in  office  from  century  to  century.  The  Serailis, 
however,  even  when  not  given  in  marriage  to 
outsiders,  are  by  no  means,  as  is  generally  sup- 
posed, imprisoned  for  life  within  the  precincts 
of  the  palace;  and  many  of  their  amusements 
are  found  outside  its  walls.  Sultanas  and  their 
ladies-in-waiting,  like  the  generality  of  women 


H4  Turkish  Life 

everywhere,  find  their  chief  distractions  in  their 
toilettes,  in  visits,  and  drives  and  excursions. 
Visits  to  the  shrines  of  Moslem  saints,  or  to  the 
services  in  Dervish  Tekkehs,  vary  their  mundane 
pursuits,  and  are  made  the  opportunity  of  aton- 
ing for  some  of  their  sins  by  pious  gifts  and 
almsdeeds.  Each  lady  has  her  favourite  Shekh 
and  her  favourite  shrine,  to  whom  and  to  which 
she  periodically  makes  offerings,  either  in  money 
or  in  the  shape  of  rich  shawls  and  draperies  for 
the  tombs  of  the  departed. 

The  ladies  of  the  Imperial  harem,  in  their 
excursions  beyond  the  palace  precincts,  are  in- 
variably attended  by  negro  eunuchs,  resplendent 
in  frock-coats,  light  trousers,  kid  gloves,  and 
diamond  jewellery.  For  these  gentry,  though 
valued  chiefly  for  their  size  and  ugliness,  are 
preposterously  vain,  and  their  owners  gladly 
gratify  the  little  weaknesses  of  these  generally 
attached  and  trustworthy  servants.  Mounted 
on  prancing  Arabs,  they  ride  on  either  side 
of  the  smart  closed  broughams,  through  the 
windows  of  which  a  passing  glimpse  may  be 
caught  of  a  filmy  white  yashmak,  athwart  which 
dark  eyes  peer  curiously  at  the  denizens  of  the 
strange  outside  world,  whom  they  may  encounter 
on  the  way  to  one  of  the  fashionable  resorts  of 
Turkish  holiday-makers.  The  present  Sultan  is 
by  no  means,  as  so  many  of  his  predecessors 
have  been,  and  as  he  is  sometimes  reported  to 


Life  at  Yildiz  Kiosk 


H5 


be,  under  the  influence  of  the  women  of  his 
household.  His  mother,  as  already  mentioned, 
is  dead;  he  has  but  one  wife  living;  he  is  no 
longer  a  young  man;  and  he  is  too  much  en- 
grossed with  affairs  of  State  to  take  any  active 
interest  in  matters  connected  with  his  harem,  in 
which  he  does  not  now  reside,  and  which  he 
visits  only  occasionally. 


CHAPTER  VII 

RELIGIOUS  LIFE  AND  THOUGHT 

IT  would  manifestly  be  impossible  to  give 
within  present  limits  of  space  even  a  cursory 
account  of  the  actual  working  among  the  Os- 
manlis  of  the  vast  code  of  morals  and  devotion 
contained  in  the  Koran.  The  main  tenets  of 
Islam,  as  summed  up  in  the  "Five  Pillars  of 
Practice,"  are  belief  in  one  God  and  the  Divine 
mission  of  his  prophet  Mohammed ;  the  repeti- 
tion of  the  namai,  or  five  daily  prayers;  the 
performance  of  the  pilgrimage  to  Mekka;  the 
practice  of  almsgiving,  and  the  observance  of 
the  fast  of  Ramazan.  The  Moslem  confession 
of  faith  runs  as  follows:  "I  believe  in  God  and 
His  angels,  and  His  Books  and  His  Prophets, 
and  the  predestination  of  good  and  evil  by  God, 
and  the  resurrection  after  death.  I  bear  witness 
that  there  is  no  God  but  God,  and  I  testify  that 
Mohammed  is  His  servant  and  His  Prophet." 
The  tenets  here  enumerated  comprise  all  that  is 
most  important  in  Mohammedanism. 

The  Koran  inculcates  monotheism  in  its  most 
146 


Religious  Life  and  Thought    H7 

uncompromising  and  absolute  form,  a  great  por- 
tion of  the  book  constituting  a  fierce  invective 
against  polytheism  or  trinitarianism.  And  though 
in  the  Koran  Allah  is  usually  characterised  as 
"the  Merciful"  and  "the  Compassionate,"  and 
as  ready  to  forgive  the  sins  of  the  truly  penitent, 
the  general  conception  of  the  Deity  is  at  the  same 
time  that  of  a  Being  more  terrible  and  inexorable 
than  the  "jealous  God"  of  the  Jews.  The  term 
"  Moslem  "  signifies  "  resigned  " — resigned  to  the 
mysterious  decrees  of  an  irresponsible  ruler  who, 
though  He  has  revealed  a  certain  moral  law  for  the 
guidance  of  His  creatures,  is  Himself  above  all  law 
and  all  morality.  This  view  of  the  Almighty  as 
"the  only  potentate,  Lord  of  lords,  and  King  of 
kings,"  recurs  all  through  the  Koran,  and  is  cu- 
riously illustrated  by  the  formula  of  devotion, 
both  public  and  private,  termed  the  nama^  in- 
stituted by  Mohammed.  For  there  is  in  Islam, 
properly  speaking,  no  ritual,  no  sacrifice  of 
horned  beasts,  as  in  Judaism,  or  of  the  Mass,  as 
in  Christianism,  nor  sacerdotalism ;  for  the  Ulema 
form  no  spiritual  hierarchy,  and  the  Imam  lays 
claim  to  no  priestly  rank,  but  merely  for  conven- 
ience' sake  leads  the  collective  devotions  of  the 
congregation  in  the  mosque.  The  mosque  itself 
is  indeed  merely  a  convenience,  for  the  nama^ 
may  be  equally  well  recited  elsewhere  so  long  as 
the  worshipper's  face  is  turned  in  the  direction 
of  Mekka — in  the  privacy  of  the  harem,  in  the 


1 48  Turkish  Life 

public  thoroughfares,  in  the  council  chamber, 
and  preferably  out-of-doors.  This  act  of  wor- 
ship should,  however,  be  preceded  by  ablution, 
as  prayer  must  be  made  in  a  state  of  legal  purity, 
and  for  this  facilities  are  offered  by  the  fountains 
with  which  the  courtyard  of  every  mosque  is  sup- 
plied. The  ablution  usual  before  prayer  is  called 
the  attest,  and  consists  in  washing  the  hands 
and  forearms,  the  face  and  feet,  in  running  water. 
Prayer  carpets  are  used  to  guard  against  any  im- 
purity on  the  spot  where  prayer  is  offered.  The 
nama^  consists  merely  of  two  or  more  repeti- 
tions of  a  ceremony  called  the  rikat,  or  "  pro- 
stration," which  is  little  more  than  the  recitation 
in  various  prescribed  attitudes  of  certain  formulae, 
such  as,  "God  is  most  great!"  "We  give 
praise  unto  Allah!"  A  few  minutes  before  the 
hour  of  each  of  these  five  prayers,  a  servant  of 
the  mosque,  called  the  Mue^jim,  generally 
chosen  for  his  vocal  abilities,  ascends  the  spiral 
staircase  of  the  minaret,  and,  emerging  on  its 
surrounding  balcony,  chants  in  Arabic  the  E^an, 
or  call  to  prayer,  "  Allahu  Akbar !  "  (repeated 
four  times),  "God  is  most  great!  Come  to 
prayer!  Prayer  is  better  than  sleep!"  (for  the 
sunrise  E%an  only).  "There  is  no  God  but 
Allah!  He  giveth  life  and  dieth  not!  My  sins 
are  great,  greater  is  Allah's  mercy!  I  extol  His 
perfections !  Allahu  Akbar!  God  is  most  great ! " 
At  the  full  midday  service  the  Mollahs,  seated 


Religious  Life  and  Thought    149 

on  the  elevated  platforms  in  the  mosques,  repeat 
the  same  formula,  while  the  men  worshippers 
seat  themselves  in  rows  on  the  mats  and  carpets 
with  their  faces  towards  the  Kiblah,  a  niche  in 
the  south-eastern  wall  indicating  the  direction  of 
Mekka,  the  few  elderly  women  and  children  who 
may  be  present  being  concealed  in  a  latticed  gal- 
lery approached  by  a  separate  entrance.  The 
Imam  stands  alone  facing  the  Mihrab,  with  his 
back  to  the  congregation,  who,  led  by  him,  per- 
form the  prescribed  gestures  simultaneously  with 
the  precision  of  soldiers  at  drill.  First  he  places 
his  thumbs  behind  his  ears  with  the  fingers 
extended,  while  he  ejaculates,  "God  is  most 
great!"  Then,  with  his  hands  folded  on  his 
stomach,  and  with  downcast  eyes,  he  recites  a 
collect  and  the  fatiha,  the  Moslem  equivalent  of 
the  Lord's  Prayer:  "Praise  be  to  Allah,  Lord  of 
the  Universe,  the  Merciful,  the  Compassionate, 
Lord  of  the  Day  of  Judgment.  Thee  only  do  we 
worship;  to  Thee  do  we  cry  for  help;  guide  us 
in  the  right  way — in  the  way  of  those  whom 
Thou  hast  laden  with  Thy  blessings;  not  in  the 
way  of  those  who  have  encountered  Thy  wrath 
or  have  gone  astray."  Other  passages  from  the 
Koran  may  follow,  after  which  he  inclines  him- 
self, placing  his  hands  on  his  knees,  with  the 
words,  "God  is  most  great!  I  praise  Allah!" 
three  times.  Then,  after  standing  erect,  with 
his  hands  at  his  side,  saying,  "God  hears  those 


i5°  Turkish  Life 

who  praise  Him!  O  Lord,  Thou  art  praised!" 
he  falls  on  his  knees — "God  is  most  great"; 
he  next  prostrates  himself  with  his  forehead 
touching  the  ground,  repeating  thrice,  "I  ex- 
tol Thee,  O  God."  This  formula  of  recitation 
and  posture  forms  what  is  termed  a  rikat,  the 
ordinary  midday  prayers  consisting  of  ten,  and 
on  Friday  of  twelve  rikats.  At  the  conclusion 
of  the  nama^,  the  worshippers  stand  erect,  with 
outstretched  arms  and  extended  palms,  as  if  to 
receive  the  promised  blessing  from  on  high. 
Most  impressive  is  the  simple  faith,  reverence, 
and  absorbed  devotion  with  which  this  service 
of  worship  is  performed  by  the  mixed  congrega- 
tion, composed  chiefly  of  the  working  classes — 
in  Turkey  the  most  devout  section  of  the  popula- 
tion. On  Fridays,  after  the  nama^,  the  Mollah 
ascends  the  pulpit  and  delivers  a  discourse,  which 
is  hardly  a  sermon  in  our  sense  of  the  word, 
being  largely  addressed  to  the  Deity,  and  includ- 
ing prayers  for  the  protection  and  triumph '  of 
Islam,  followed  by  mention  of  the  early  Khalifs 
and  companions  of  the  Prophet,  whose  names 
are  greeted  by  the  congregation  with  the  words, 
"May  he  find  acceptance  with  Allah!" 

In  addition  to  the  nama^,  which  is  essentially 
a  service  to  be  recited  at  certain  hours,  Moslems 
are  accustomed  to  say  a  dua,  or  prayer,  on  any 
important  or  solemn  occasion,  such  as  a  birth, 
wedding,  circumcision,  on  setting  out  on  a  jour- 


Religious  Life  and  Thought    15 * 

ney,  or  on  taking  possession  of  a  new  house. 
Sometimes  the  fatiha  is  used,  and  Koranic 
phrases  are  generally  made  use  of  in  such  occa- 
sional prayers.  Such  expressions  as  "Bismillah  ' ' 
("In  the  name  of  God"),  and  "Inshallah"  ("God 
willing  "),  are  also  very  frequent  on  the  lips  of  a 
pious  Moslem. 

The  fatalistic  doctrine  of  Kismet,  which  so  im- 
portantly influences  Turkish  thought  and  action, 
or  inaction,  has  its  origin  in  the  dogma  that  all 
the  actions  and  events  affecting  mankind  are 
absolutely  predestined  by  Allah,  who  has  written 
them  down  in  "the  preserved  Tables,"  delivered 
to  the  Angels  on  the  Night  of  Destiny  before 
mentioned.  Many  people  besides  Turks  are  fat- 
alists, but  they  consult  a  doctor  when  they  are 
ill  and  take  other  ordinary  precautions  against 
disaster.  But  in  the  opinion  of  the  Turk  all  such 
precautions  are  vain ;  if  it  is  his  kismet  that  ca- 
lamity shall  overtake  him,  overtake  him  it  will, 
and  what,  then,  is  the  good  of  troubling  himself 
with  efforts  to  avert  it?  That  fate  helps  him 
who  helps  himself  is  a  doctrine  incomprehensible 
to  a  Turk.  Whatever  energy  he  may  display, 
fate,  in  his  belief,  may  thwart  his  best  endeavours 
or  crown  his  supineness  with  equally  unmerited 
and  unexpected  prosperity;  and  many  are  the 
folk-tales,  some  not  without  humour,  illustrating 
and  confirming  popular  belief  in  this  great  factor 
in  human  affairs.     The  effects  of  such  a  mental 


/ 


1 5 2  Turkish  Life 

attitude  are  naturally  far-reaching.  Not  only  are 
lives  constantly  sacrificed  and  wealth  and  happi- 
ness missed  by  this  fatal  principle  of  passivity, 
but  the  whole  character  of  the  nation  is  enfee- 
bled. Neglect  of  all  sanitary  precautions — not  to 
say  hostility  towards  them — is  one  important  re- 
sult of  kismet.  Turkey  is  especially  liable  to 
epidemics,  which  among  so  passive  a  population 
naturally  create  terrible  havoc.  Quarantine  reg- 
ulations are  certainly  officially  observed  at  Con- 
stantinople and  the  other  large  seaports.  But  in 
the  towns  of  the  interior,  the  Moslem  population 
manifest  the  greatest  dislike  to  such  sanitary  reg- 
ulations, which  they  regard  as  a  profane  interfer- 
ence with  the  will  of  Allah,  and  do  their  best  to 
avoid  carrying  out.  The  doctor  of  the  first  quar- 
antine station  established  at  Broussa  was,  for  in- 
stance, attacked  in  the  street  by  several  hundred 
Turkish  women,  who,  save  for  the  intervention 
of  the  police,  would  have  beaten  him  to  death 
for  his  supposed  impiety. 

Pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Cities  of  Islam,  though 
less  frequently  performed  at  the  present  day  than 
formerly  notwithstanding  the  greater  facilities  of 
travel,  is  still  considered  the  holiest  action  in  the 
eyes  of  a  Moslem,  entitling  him  thereafter  to  add 
to  his  cognomen  the  honourable  prefix  of  Hadji, 
or  Pilgrim.  A  pilgrimage  may  be,  however,  and 
often  is,  performed  by  deputy,  should  the  per- 
son desirous  of  performing  it  be  prevented  by 


Religious  Life  and  Thought    153 

bodily  infirmity  or  circumstances  from  accom- 
plishing it  in  his  own  person.  In  order,  how- 
ever, that  all  the  merit  of  the  act  may  accrue  to 
himself,  he  must  defray  all  the  expenses  of  the 
expedition,  and  be  able  to  satisfy  the  religious 
authorities  who  sanction  the  transaction,  that  the 
funds  for  it  have  been  acquired  by  strictly  honour- 
able means.  This  religious  duty  is  equally  bind- 
ing on  men  and  women;  young  unmarried  girls, 
however,  must  be  in  charge  of  both  their  parents, 
and  adult  women,  though  they  need  not  neces- 
sarily be  accompanied  by  their  husbands,  must 
be  married  before  setting  out.  Previous  to  leav- 
ing home  with  this  pious  object,  a  Moslem  is 
bound  to  set  his  worldly  affairs  in  order,  to  pay 
all  outstanding  debts,  and  make  provision  for 
his  family  during  his  absence. 

Pilgrims  from  Constantinople  and  the  neigh- 
bourhood assemble  early  in  the  morning  four- 
teen days  before  the  festival  of  the  Kourban 
Bairam,  the  "Feast  of  Sacrifice,"  in  one  of  the 
large  open  spaces  at  Stamboul,  where  a  proces- 
sion is  formed,  which  includes  a  number  of  camels 
with  gorgeously  ornamented  saddles  bearing  the 
coffers  containing  the  Sultan's  gifts  to  the  holy 
shrines,  together  with  the  alms  and  presents  of 
his  well-to-do  subjects  for  the  religious  trustees 
of  their  respective  families  in  the  cities  of  Mekka 
and  Medina.  Other  camels  have  attached  to 
their  saddles  a  kind  of  palanquin,  covered  with 


154  Turkish  Life 

costly  silken  stuff,  in  which  women  pilgrims  will 
perform  part  of  the  journey.  A  company  of  pic- 
turesquely garbed  Arabs  who  accompany  the 
caravan  exhibit  at  every  halting-place,  to  the 
rattle  of  kettle-drums,  feats  of  swordsmanship  to 
the  crowds  of  spectators  which  surround  and 
follow  the  caravan  and  its  military  escort  through 
the  streets  and  across  the  long  bridge  spanning 
the  Golden  Horn  on  its  way  to  the  Yildiz  Kiosk, 
to  salute  the  Sultan  before  embarking.  The  best 
view  of  this  quaint  procession  is  obtained  as  it 
mounts  the  steep  road  leading  to  the  palace,  now 
lined  with  troops  of  the  Imperial  guard,  the  rising 
ground  on  either  side  looking  like  a  flower-gar- 
den, covered  as  it  is  with  the  variously  hued 
cloaks  and  white  head-gear  of  thousands  of 
Turkish  women  of  the  lower  orders.  The  Sul- 
tan, himself  unseen,  is  believed  to  be  at  one  of 
the  windows  of  Yildiz  Kiosk  to  receive  the  salu- 
tation of  the  departing  pilgrims,  who,  after  offer- 
ing up  in  unison  a  prayer  for  the  success  of  their 
undertaking,  retrace  their  steps  to  the  quay, 
whence  they  embark  in  special  vessels  for  Bey- 
rout.  In  former  days  the  pilgrim  caravan,  after 
crossing  to  the  Asiatic  side  of  the  Bosphorus, 
made  the  long  journey  to  Arabia  by  land.  At  the 
present  day,  however,  the  caravan  proper  starts 
from  Damascus,  where  it  is  joined  by  thousands 
of  pilgrims  from  Africa,  Asia  Minor,  and  Syria,  and 
under  the  command  of  a  special  official,  styled 


Religious  Life  and  Thought    155 

the  "Steward  of  the  Offerings,"  and  escorted  by 
troops,  travels  across  the  desert  to  the  Holy  Cities. 

A  complete  pilgrimage  includes  visits  to 
Mekka,  Medina,  Damascus,  and  Jerusalem,  but 
only  Dervishes  and  other  zealots  accomplish  this, 
the  ordinary  citizen  being  satisfied  to  have  per- 
formed the  task  in  the  obligatory  degree.  In 
addition  to  this  obligatory  pilgrimage,  Moslems, 
and  especially  Moslem  women,  make  frequent 
visitations  to  the  shrines  of  famous  saints,  who 
are  generally  the  deceased  Shekhs  of  Dervish  or- 
ders. These  lesser  pilgrimages  are  generally  un- 
dertaken in  fulfilment  of  a  vow,  or  for  relief 
from  sickness  or  other  distress,  in  obedience  to 
the  exhortations  of  the  Hadith  or  traditional  say- 
ings of  the  Prophet:  "  If  thou  art  perplexed  in 
thine  affairs,  go,  seek  assistance  from  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  tombs,"  and,  "If  thine  heart  be  op- 
pressed with  sorrow,  go  seek  consolation  at  the 
graves  of  holy  men."  These  fiarets,  as  they  are 
called,  are  generally  made  on  the  day  of  the  an- 
nual Mevlud,  or  feast  of  the  saint,  but  are  also 
frequently  undertaken  at  other  times  when  his 
assistance  is  desired.  It  is  customary  for  sup- 
pliants or  visitors  to  bring  with  them,  besides 
other  gifts,  such  as  draperies  for  the  sarcophagus, 
a  Iamb  or  sheep,  which  is  sacrificed,  its  flesh 
being  the  perquisite  of  the  guardian  of  the  tur- 
beh,  generally  a  Dervish. 

Circumcision,  though  not  held  to  be  an  insti- 


156  Turkish  Life 

tution  of  divine  origin,  is  nevertheless  considered 
an  all-important  rite,  answering  to  baptism  in 
the  Christian  Church,  but  not,  as  a  rule,  adminis- 
tered at  so  early  an  age.  The  Turks,  charitable 
and  hospitable  on  all  occasions,  are  more  ostenta- 
tiously so  on  this,  when  they  consider  it  a  re- 
ligious duty  to  show  special  regard  and  attention 
to  the  poor  and  needy.  Poor  people,  conse- 
quently, who  cannot  individually  afford  the  ex- 
pense of  a  sunnet  dughun  for  their  boys,  defer 
it  until  they  hear  that  the  son  of  some  grandee 
in  their  neighbourhood  is  about  to  be  circum- 
cised, when  they  send  in  to  him  the  names  of 
their  children,  begging  that  they  also  may  be 
allowed  to  participate  in  the  rite.  The  rich  man, 
if  pious  and  charitable,  will  grant  such  permis- 
sion to  as  many  of  the  children  of  the  poor  as 
his  means  allow  of,  as  such  acts  of  piety  are  held 
to  be  pleasing  to  Allah;  and  when  the  ceremony 
takes  place  in  the  Imperial  palace,  custom  re- 
quires the  Sultan  to  place  no  limit  to  the  number 
of  those  allowed  to  participate  in  it.  As  the 
head  of  the  house  is  also  expected  to  furnish 
each  candidate  for  initiation  with  a  complete  suit 
of  clothes,  and  defray  all  other  attendant  ex- 
penses, a  sunnet  dughun  is  an  exceedingly  ex- 
pensive affair  for  people  of  rank.  Among  the 
middle  classes,  who  limit  the  public  festivities 
to  one  day,  the  minimum  expenditure  is  usually 
from  £\o  to  £12. 


Religious  Life  and  Thought    157 

On  Monday  morning  the  boys  are  sent  to  the 
bath,  where  their  heads  are  shaved,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  a  tuft  on  the  crown,  which  is  plaited 
with  gold  thread.  The  chief  candidate  is  richly 
dressed,  his  clothes  and  fez  being  covered  with 
jewels.  The  number  of  precious  ornaments  con- 
sidered necessary  for  the  boys  on  this  occasion 
is  indeed  so  great  that  they  have  to  be  borrowed 
in  part  from  relatives  and  friends,  who  are  in  duty 
bound  to  lend  them,  and  the  caps  and  coats  of 
the  young  Bey's  humbler  companions  are  accord- 
ingly thus  equally  studded  with  jewels.  Thus 
bedecked,  and  escorted  by  a  number  of  old  ladies, 
the  boys  make  a  round  of  calls  at  the  various 
harems,  and  invite  their  friends  to  the  ceremony. 
On  this  day  and  the  following  a  series  of  enter- 
tainments is  given  in  the  selamlik,  Wednesday 
and  Thursday  being  reserved  for  the  harem  fes- 
tivities, which  are  enlivened  with  music  and 
amusements  of  various  kinds.  On  the  morning  of 
the  latter  day,  the  ladies  of  the  house  busy  them- 
selves in  preparing  couches  for  the  boys,  who 
meantime,  mounted  on  gaily  caparisoned  horses 
and  accompanied  by  the  hodja,  or  tutor,  the  fam- 
ily barber,  and  a  number  of  friends,  make  a  pro- 
gress through  the  streets  of  the  town,  preceded 
by  music.  On  their  return  to  the  house  of  festiv- 
ity they  are  received  at  the  door  of  the  selamlik 
by  their  respective  fathers.  When  the  horse  of 
the  young  Bey  is  brought  up  to  the  mounting- 


158  Turkish  Life 

block,  and  his  father  is  about  to  help  him  to  dis- 
mount, his  hand  is  stayed  by  the  hodja,  who  asks, 
"With  what  gift  hast  thou  endowed  thy  son  ?" 
The  father  mentions  the  present  he  has  destined 
for  his  young  hopeful,  which  may  be  landed 
property,  or  some  object  of  value  according  to 
his  means,  and  then  lifts  him  down  from  the 
horse.  The  other  boys  in  their  turn  claim  and 
receive  a  present  from  their  respective  fathers  or 
next  of  kin,  or,  if  they  are  destitute  of  either, 
from  their  entertainer,  who  is  held  to  supply  a 
father's  place  for  the  occasion.  The  sacred  rite 
is  performed  on  the  morning  of  Friday  in  the 
selamlik,  after  which  the  children  are  again  con- 
signed to  the  care  of  the  women,  who  place 
them  on  the  beds  prepared  for  them  on  the 
preceding  day,  and  make  every  effort  to  amuse 
and  distract  them.  The  boys  are  visited  by  their 
friends,  who  offer  money  and  other  presents,  not 
only  to  them,  but  to  the  officiating  barber,  and 
to  the  musdadji — the  person  who  has  announced 
to  the  mother  the  completion  of  the  sacred  rite. 
On  the  following  morning  the  guest-children  are 
removed  to  their  respective  homes,  but  the  en- 
tertainments are  continued  in  the  principal  house 
until  Monday. 

In  addition  to  the  above  and  other  forms  of 
charity,  general  almsgiving  is  so  largely  practised 
that,  notwithstanding  the  bankrupt  state  of  the 
country  and  the  absence  of  anything  in  the  shape 


Religious  Life  and  Thought    159 

of  poor-law  relief,  there  is  really  no  such  destitu- 
tion as  disgraces  the  large  cities  of  Europe  and 
the  United  States.  Blind  Bartimeus  and  Lazarus 
still  sit  by  the  wayside,  and  the  true  believers 
fulfil  the  precepts  of  their  religion  by  supplying 
the  wants  of  these  afflicted  ones,  and  of  the 
fatherless  and  the  widow. 

Although  as  many  as  seven  annual  fasts  are 
observed  by  devout  Moslems,  one  only  of  these, 
the  month-long  fast  of  Ramazan,  is  held  to  be 
of  divine  institution,  and  consequently  its  ob- 
servance is  incumbent  on  all  true  believers  over 
the  age  of  fourteen,  invalids  and  travellers  only 
being  exempt  from  its  strict  observance.  This 
month,  the  ninth  of  the  Mohammedan  year, 
constitutes  for  the  Turks,  as  for  Moslems  gen- 
erally, a  kind  of  revival  time.  Western  customs, 
wherever  adopted,  are,  for  the  time  being,  laid 
aside,  and  the  more  primitive  native  manners  re- 
verted to.  During  this  season,  too,  the  Muezzim 
supplements  his  usual  announcement  of  the  hour 
of  prayer  from  the  minaret  with  this  exhorta- 
tion:—  "Give  food,  O  ye  Faithful,  unto  the 
orphan  and  the  poor,  the  wayfarer  and  the 
bondsman,  for  His  sake,  saying,  '  We  feed  you 
for  Allah's  sake,  and  we  desire  no  recompense 
from  you  nor  word  of  thanks ' " ;  while  in  the 
mosques  the  Mollahs  similarly  call  upon  their 
congregations  to  remember  those  less  favoured 
by  fortune.      And  though  the  wealthy  do  not 


160  Turkish  Life 

now,  as  in  olden  days,  literally  stand  at  their 
doors  to  bring  in  and  set  at  their  supper-tables 
all  the  poor  who  pass  by,  peace  and  good  will 
reign  supreme,  and  charity  and  hospitality  are 
largely  practised.  More  time  is  also  devoted 
during  this  period  to  religious  observances,  and 
many  devout  Moslems  of  both  sexes  seclude 
themselves  for  a  portion  of  each  day  in  the 
mosques,  abstaining  from  all  worldly  conversa- 
tion, more  especially  during  the  last  ten  days  of 
the  fast. 

"As  soon  as  any  one  of  you  observeth  the 
new  moon,"  said  the  Prophet,  "let  him  set 
about  the  fast."  And  all  over  the  Moslem  world, 
at  the  end  of  the  eighth  lunar  month,  lone  senti- 
nels on  minaret  and  mountain  watch  for  the 
appearance  of  the  moon  of  Ramazan.  For  re- 
ligious observances  change  not  with  advances  in 
scientific  knowledge,  and  almanacs  are  ignored 
in  the  matter.  Consequently,  if  the  weather 
happens  to  be  cloudy  when  the  new  moon  is 
believed  to  be  due,  but  is  still  invisible,  it  is  held 
to  have  risen  thirty  days  after  the  appearance  of 
the  last  moon.  The  moment  the  first  faint  silver 
streak  is  visible,  the  watchers  hasten  to  announce 
the  tidings  to  the  expectant  multitude.  The 
news  spreads  like  wild-fire  through  the  city,  and 
the  faithful  immediately  "set  about  the  fast,"  in 
obedience  to  their  Prophet's  command.  In  con- 
sequence of  this  lunar  character  of  the  Moslem 


Religious  Life  and  Thought    161 

year,  Ramazan  makes  in  course  of  time  the  round 
of  the  seasons.  But  through  the  long  hot  days 
of  summer,  as  well  as  in  the  short  winter  days, 
the  pious  Moslem  will  rigidly  abstain  during  this 
month  from  food,  drink,  and  tobacco  between 
dawn  and  sunset.  To  the  poor,  who  are  among 
its  strictest  observers,  and  whom  necessity  com- 
pels to  pursue  their  usual  avocations  unrefreshed, 
this  period  is  one  of  real  mortification  of  the 
flesh,  especially  in  summer.  The  wealthy,  how- 
ever, merely  turn  night  into  day,  and  very  little 
official  business  is  transacted.  As  the  sun  ap- 
proaches the  horizon,  a  tray  is  brought  in  to  the 
assembled  family,  or  company,  laden  with  me^- 
liks,  or  "appetisers,"  —  tiny  plates  of  sweets, 
dried  fish,  fruit,  olives,  and  other  hors  d'ceuvres, 
—  together  with  glasses  of  iced  sherbet,  made 
from  fresh  fruits.  As  soon  as  the  sunset  gun 
has  thundered  out  the  welcome  tidings  that  the 
fast  is  at  an  end  for  the  day,  each  person  utters  a 
" Bismillah!  "  ("In  the  name  of  Allah!")  and 
helps  himself  to  an  olive,  it  being  considered 
more  meritorious  to  break  the  fast  with  that 
than  with  any  other  edible.  After  the  contents 
of  the  tray  have  been  sparingly  partaken  of,  the 
evening  meal,  for  which  special  sweets  and 
delicacies  are  at  this  season  prepared,  is  served. 

Two  hours  after  sunset  the  Teraweh  prayers 
are  performed,  either  at  the  mosque  or  in 
private.     It  is  customary  for  the  Stamboul  Mos- 


1 62  Turkish  Life 

lems  at  the  close  of  these  prayers  to  repair  to 
the  esplanade  adjoining  the  Suleimanieh  mosque, 
where  hundreds  of  elegant  equipages,  filled  with 
Government  officials,  portly  dames,  or  "Lights 
of  the  Harem,"  may  be  seen  slowly  making  their 
way  through  the  crowds  of  pedestrians  who,  on 
this  occasion,  allow  themselves,  and  are  allowed, 
a  carnival  licence  quite  unknown  at  any  other 
time.  The  working  classes,  who  have  their 
usual  avocations  to  pursue  on  the  morrow,  usu- 
ally retire  to  rest  after  the  Teraweh  prayers. 
The  wealthy,  however,  as  I  have  said,  turn 
night  into  day,  pay  calls,  give  parties,  and  spend 
the  time  in  a  round  of  feasts  and  entertainments. 
Two  hours  before  dawn,  the  "  Awakeners  "  take 
their  way  through  the  streets  of  the  Turkish 
quarters,  to  warn  those  who  sleep  that  it  is 
time  to  arise  and  partake  of  the  sahor,  the  last 
meal  eaten  before  sunrise.  Accompanied  by  a 
boy  carrying  a  lantern,  the  "Awakener"  stops 
before  every  Moslem  house,  and  taps  a  small 
hemispherical  drum  four  times,  after  which  he 
chants:  "He  prospereth  who  saith:  There  is 
no  god  but  God! "  He  then  beats  the  drum  as 
before,  and  adds:  "Mohammed,  the  Guide,  is 
the  Apostle  of  Allah ! "  And  after  repeating  the 
notes  on  his  instrument,  he  passes  on  with  the 
greeting: — "The  happiest  of  nights  unto  thee, 
O  Achmet!"  —  or  whatever  the  householder's 
name  may  be.     When  the  sahor  has  been  par- 


Religious  Life  and  Thought    163 

taken  of,  the  time  is  filled  up  with  smoking  and 
coffee-sipping  until  the  boom  of  cannon  an- 
nounces the  moment  for  rinsing  the  mouth  and 
" sealing"  it  against  food  until  the  evening. 

On  the  twenty-seventh  day  of  Ramazan  is 
celebrated  the  anniversary  of  "The  Night  of 
Power,"  or  "Excellent  Night,"  during  which 
the  Koran  is  believed  by  Moslems  to  have  come 
down  entire  to  the  "  Lower  Heaven,"  whence  it 
was  revealed  in  portions  to  the  Prophet  by  the 
angel  Gabriel.  During  certain  hours  of  this 
night,  which  is  also  termed  the  "Night  of 
Destiny,"  popular  belief  holds  that  the  waters  of 
the  sea  become  sweet;  that  the  whole  animal 
and  vegetable  creations  bow  themselves  in  hum- 
ble adoration  before  Allah ;  and  that  the  destinies 
of  men  for  the  coming  year  are  revealed  to  the 
angels. 

The  name  of  this  season  of  day-fasting  and 
night-feasting  invariably  conjures  up  before  me 
the  fair  scenes  amid  which  I  first  witnessed  its 
observance,  under  the  blue  skies  of  an  Asian 
winter  —  a  winter  the  charm  of  which  still 
lingers  pleasantly  in  my  memory.  Ramazan  fell 
that  year  in  December,  when  I  was  on  a  visit 
to  an  Armenian  family  in  the  little  town  of 
Bournabat,  about  six  miles  from  Smyrna.  The 
house,  a  long,  low,  one-storied  building,  open- 
ing on  one  side  on  a  wide  verandah,  was  situ- 
ated at  the  juncture  of  the  Armenian  and  Turkish 


1 64  Turkish  Life 

quarters  of  the  town.  Every  evening,  at  supper, 
Ramazan  loaves — long,  flat  cakes  plentifully  be- 
sprinkled with  sesame  seeds — were  laid  by  each 
cover  instead  of  the  customary  hunch  of  bread; 
and  a  dish  of  some  Ramazan  delicacy,  sent  by  a 
Turkish  neighbour,  often  appeared  on  the  table. 
During  the  small  hours  of  every  night  the 
"Awakeners"  passed  under  the  garden  walls, 
the  monotonous  beat  of  their  little  drums,  and 
the  wild,  yet  plaintively  sweet  chant  mingling 
with  our  dreams,  and  producing,  in  the  stillness 
of  the  night,  a  singularly  romantic  impression. 

On  another  occasion,  while  residing  at  Salonica, 
I  was  invited,  with  a  party  of  friends,  to  an  lftar, 
or  Ramazan  supper,  by  the  Vali  Pasha,  or  Gov- 
ernor-General. The  feast  was  to  be  served  al 
fresco  in  the  public  Garden  of  The  Five  Plane 
Trees,  outside  the  ancient  walls  of  the  city; 
and,  arriving  just  before  sunset,  we  found  our 
host  engaged  in  his  devotions  at  a  little  distance 
on  the  mat-strewn  shore  of  the  great  land-locked 
bay.  In  Islam  all  men  are  equal.  Field-marshal 
and  private,  judge  and  pipe-bearer,  were  stand- 
ing shoulder  to  shoulder,  shoeless  and  reverent, 
waiting  for  the  Imam  to  commence  the  Sunset 
Prayer.  Then  a  chorus  of  devotion  rose  on  the 
air,  and,  "God  is  great!  God  is  great!"  was 
shouted  by  some  scores  of  voices.  Now  and 
again  a  late-comer,  soldier  or  servant,  whom 
worldly  duties  had  delayed,  arrived,  slipped  off 


Religious  Life  and  Thought    165 

his  shoes,  and  joined  the  ranks  of  the  worship- 
pers. In  the  meantime,  the  sun  had  been  fast 
sinking  behind  the  western  mountains,  flushing 
the  Olympian  summits  with  a  wondrous  glory, 
and  tinging  the  white-walled  city  opposite  with 
a  rosy  glow  which  flashed  back  in  fiery  gleams 
from  casement  and  crescent.  And  now  the 
thunder  of  a  gun  from  the  citadel  proclaimed  the 
day's  fast  at  an  end.  Round  every  minaret 
diadems  of  lamps  began  to  twinkle,  and  the 
Muezzims'  voices  could  be  faintly  heard  chanting 
the  call  to  prayer. 

His  devotions  concluded,  our  host,  accom- 
panied by  his  young  son,  a  boy  who  had  shared 
the  studies  of  the  Imperial  princes,  now  advanced 
to  greet  us,  and  offering  an  arm  each  to  my 
friend  and  myself,  his  Excellency  conducted  us 
to  a  small  table  spread  under  the  trees.  Numer- 
ous other  tables  were  placed  round  about,  at 
which  groups  of  Moslems,  both  civil  and  mili- 
tary, soon  gathered.  Besides  his  Excellency  and 
son,  our  immediate  party  consisted  of  two  smaller 
Pashas  —  that  is,  Pashas  of  lower  rank,  for  phys- 
ically either  of  them  would  have  made  two  of 
our  Governor-General  —  and  a  couple  of  Eu- 
ropeans. The  table  was  laid  with  spoons,  forks, 
and  napkins,  and  to  each  cover  were  added  a 
Ramazan  cake  and  a  goblet  of  iced  fruit-sherbet. 
I  found  that  Ramazan  customs  were  to  be  ob- 
served and  plates  to  be  dispensed  with.    ' '  Begin, 


1 66  Turkish  Life 

madam,"  said  our  host  to  my  companion,  invit- 
ing her,  with  a  polite  wave  of  his  hand  in  the 
direction  of  the  tureen,  to  take  the  first  spoonful. 
My  turn  came  next;  the  Pasha  —  and,  after  him, 
the  rest  —  followed  suit.  The  Turks  were,  no 
doubt,  very  hungry,  having  fasted  since  day- 
break, and  they  now  "supped  their  broth  "  with 
great  gusto.  Fish  and  meat  of  different  kinds 
followed,  mostly  stewed,  and  mixed  with  vege- 
tables, but  very  rich  and  savoury,  to  which  all 
helped  themselves  with  their  fingers.  My  friend, 
who  was  quite  at  home  in  Turkish  society,  see- 
ing me  somewhat  diffident  at  putting  my  fingers 
into  the  dishes,  occasionally  came  to  my  assist- 
ance by  fishing  out  from  the  mess  a  nice  little 
cutlet,  or  limb  of  some  bird,  placing  it  on  my 
Ramazan  cake  in  default  of  a  plate.  Sweets  were 
handed  round  between  the  courses,  and  also 
fruits  of  various  kinds.  Tahir  Bey,  the  Pasha's 
son,  who  sat  next  to  me,  every  now  and  again 
in  the  intervals  would  take  up  in  his  fingers  a 
cube  of  pink  watermelon,  and  present  it  to  me 
with  a  polite  salaam,  and  I  was  compelled  in 
politeness  to  accept  and  consume  it.  Fortun- 
ately I  was  spared  the  ordeal  of  being  made  the 
recipient  of  what  is  considered  among  Orientals 
a  very  polite  attention,  namely,  receiving  in  my 
mouth  a  tidbit  picked  out  of  the  dish  by  his 
Excellency's  own  small  and  shapely  fingers.  My 
neighbour,   however,   accepted   and  swallowed 


Religious  Life  and  Thought    167 

the  savoury  morsel  offered  to  her  with  the  ut- 
most complacency,  smilingly  acknowledging  the 
compliment  with  the  usual  salaam. 

Night  had  now  fallen,  and  the  moon  of  mid- 
Ramazan  rode  high  in  heaven.  During  the  meal 
a  military  band,  seated  at  a  little  distance  —  a 
Turkish  band  always  sits  down  to  play,  if  pos- 
sible—  had  been  discoursing  to  us,  now  a  wild 
Oriental  march,  and  now  a  selection  from  some 
Italian  or  French  opera.  And  as  the  business  of 
the  table  relaxed  and  we  looked  round  us,  lo! 
the  trees  were  glittering  with  myriads  of  tiny 
lamps,  which  sparkled  and  gleamed  amid  the 
foliage  like  the  fireflies  of  the  tropics.  As  the 
guests  at  the  other  tables  finished  their  supper, 
they  rose,  and  in  their  flowing,  many-coloured 
robes,  their  ample  white  turbans  or  quaint  Der- 
vish caps,  strolled  slowly  and  gravely  along  the 
garden  paths,  fingering  meditatively  the  large 
brown  beads  of  their  rosaries,  until  the  hour  for 
the  Teraweh  prayers  was  proclaimed  from  the 
distant  minarets  of  the  city. 

The  conclusion  of  Ramazan  is  celebrated  by 
the  festival  of  the  Breaking  of  the  Fast,  also 
called  the  Feast  of  Alms,  which  lasts  for  three 
days,  during  which  no  work  whatever  is  done. 
On  the  first  of  these  days,  in  addition  to  a  con- 
siderable donation  to  the  poor,  every  well-to-do 
person  makes  a  present  to  his  slaves,  and  also  to 
all  those  holding  a  subordinate  position  to  him. 


1 68  Turkish  Life 

Congratulatory  visits  are  also  exchanged,  and 
after  the  midday  service  in  the  mosques  the  days 
are  given  up  to  rejoicing  and  amusement. 

The  greatest  of  all  Moslem  festivals  is,  how- 
ever, the  Kurban  Bairam,  or  Feast  of  Sacrifice, 
which,  besides  forming  part  of  the  rites  of  the 
pilgrims  while  at  Mekka,  is  observed  equally  in 
every  part  of  Islamiyeh.  Though  there  is  no- 
thing in  the  Koran  to  connect  this  annual  sacrifice 
with  the  story  of  Ishmael,  it  is  generally  held  by 
Moslems  to  have  been  instituted  by  the  Prophet 
in  commemoration  of  Abraham's  willingness  to 
offer  up  his  son  as  a  sacrifice,  Ishmael  being  sub- 
stituted for  Isaac  in  the  Mohammedan  version  of 
the  story.  For  some  days  prior  to  this  feast  the 
great  open  space  skirting  the  beautiful  mosque 
of  Bayazid  in  Stamboul  resounds  with  the  bleat- 
ings  of  thousands  of  prospective  victims,  tended 
by  a  motley  throng  of  nomad  shepherds  from 
the  hill-pastures  of  both  Europe  and  Asia.  Here 
each  head  of  a  household  selects  beforehand  a 
lamb,  which  is  led  about  by  the  children  of  the 
family  until  its  day  of  doom,  its  fleece  stained 
with  henna  or  cochineal,  and  its  budding  horns 
covered  with  gold  or  silver  leaf.  When  the  lamb 
has  been  sacrificed  on  the  morn  of  the  festival, 
its  flesh  is  divided  into  three  portions,  one  being 
given  to  the  poor,  another  to  relatives,  the  third 
being  kept  for  consumption  by  the  household. 
At  an  early  hour  on  this  day  the  Sultan,  attended 


Religious  Life  and  Thought    169 

by  Ministers  and  officials,  civil  and  military,  pro- 
ceeds in  state  to  the  mosque  to  celebrate  the 
opening  of  the  feast,  greeted  as  he  passes  be- 
tween the  troops  lining  the  way  with  loyal  cries 
of  "Mashallah  Padishah!"  and  "Long  live  our 
Padishah ! "  echoed  by  all  the  privileged  spec- 
tators. On  returning  to  the  palace  the  Sultan 
holds  a  levee  at  which  the  dignitaries  of  the 
Empire  attend  to  do  homage,  and  members  of 
the  Embassies  and  other  distinguished  foreigners 
to  offer  their  congratulations. 

In  former  reigns  the  ceremony  of  opening  the 
Bairam  usually  took  place  at  one  of  the  royal 
mosques  of  Stamboul,  and  was  of  a  much  more 
public  character,  thousands  of  the  faithful  assem- 
bling to  greet  their  Padishah  on  this  auspicious 
occasion.  But,  as  elsewhere  mentioned,  Sultan 
Abdul  Hamid  is  chary  of  exhibiting  himself  to  his 
lieges,  and  places  every  obstacle  in  the  way  of 
their  assembling  themselves  together.  The  festi- 
val is,  notwithstanding,  in  the  capital,  as  through- 
out the  Empire,  observed  with  great  rejoicings. 
New  garments  are  donned  in  its  honour  by  rich 
and  poor,  and  gifts  and  alms  lavishly  bestowed. 
Cheap  toys  are  on  this  day  exposed  for  sale  in 
the  streets  in  large  quantities,  and  every  visitor 
who  comes  to  wish  his  friends  "A  happy  Bai- 
ram "  is  laden  with  these  gifts  for  the  children. 
The  open  spaces  near  the  mosques  are  accord- 
ingly lined  with  the  stalls  of  the  Christian  and 


170  Turkish  Life 

Jewish  vendors  of  such  toys,  and  also  of  fruits, 
and  sweets,  and  all  the  favourite  suburban  re- 
sorts are  thronged  with  happy  but  orderly  holi- 
day-makers, for  whose  delectation  are  assembled 
the  various  caterers  to  their  amusement  else- 
where described.  As  evening  fades  into  night 
the  whole  of  Stamboul  begins  to  glitter  with  the 
lights  from  myriads  of  tiny  oil-lamps,  hung  round 
the  windows  of  houses,  festooned  from  minaret 
to  minaret,  or  suspended  in  double  or  triple  cor- 
onals round  their  slender  pinnacles.  Along  the 
winding  banks  of  the  Bosphorus  an  endless  range 
of  lambent  flames,  interspersed  with  lamps  and 
cressets  innumerable,  and  here  and  there  a  bon- 
fire, are  reflected  in  the  darkening  waters,  adding 
to  the  natural  charm  of  the  scene  an  effect  which 
almost  savours  of  enchantment. 

The  other  most  important  Moslem  festivals 
are  the  Mevlud,  or  anniversary  of  the  Prophet's 
birth,  and  the  "  Feast  of  the  Prophet's  Mantle," 
when  the  Sultan  proceeds  in  state  to  the  mosque 
in  the  Old  Serai  at  Stamboul,  in  which  this  pre- 
cious relic  is  preserved,  Here,  after  the  perform- 
ance of  the  midday  natna^,  the  Padishah  with 
great  solemnity  unfolds  from  its  forty  silk  wrap- 
pers the  "mantle" — said  to  be  a  small  fragment 
of  greenish  cloth  —  which  he  displays  to  the 
select  company  of  high  officials  who  have  the 
honour  of  accompanying  him.  On  all  these 
festivals  the  mosques  and  public  buildings  are 


Religious  Life  and  Thought    171 

illuminated  on  the  preceding  evening,  the  Turk- 
ish day,  like  the  Jewish,  beginning,  as  before 
mentioned,  at  sunset. 

*  The  characteristic  attitude  of  the  Moslem  mind 
of  profound  and  complete  resignation  to  the  will 
of  Allah  is,  perhaps,  on  no  occasion  more  strongly 
manifested  than  in  the  presence  of  death.  The 
pious  Moslem  has  ever  present  to  his  mind  the 
termination  of  earthly  existence  and  the  life  be- 
yond the  grave;  he  considers  himself  but  en- 
camped in  the  world,  just  as  the  Osmanli  nation 
has  been  said  to  be  but  encamped  in  Europe; 
and  he  regards  the  joys  and  allurements  of  mun- 
dane life  as  but  illusions  and  shadows  in  com- 
parison with  the  delights  which  await  him  in 
Paradise.  Kismet,  which  determines  the  events 
of  a  person's  life,  and  Edjel,  "his  appointed 
time,"  are  decreed  by  Allah,  who,  it  is  popularly 
believed,  has  inscribed  them  in  invisible  char- 
acters on  the  brow  of  every  human  being.  This 
unquestioning  submission  to  the  decrees  of  fate 
renders  death  terrible  to  Moslems  only  in  the 
abstract,  and  when  viewed  from  a  distance.  In 
polite  society  it  is  never  alluded  to  save  under 
some  poetical  name,  such  as  the  "Cupbearer  of 
the  Sphere,"  and  prefaced  by  the  wish  "Far  be 
it  from  you!"  and  the  common  people,  before 
uttering  the  word,  invariably  spit,  an  action 
which  has  much  the  same  signification.  Such  a 
fatalistic  view  of  life  and  death  naturally  causes 


i7 '2  Turkish  Life 

the  Osmanlis  to  put  little  faith  in  the  medical 
art.  If  a  person's  Edjel  has  called  him,  he  will 
die,  doctors  and  "charmers"  notwithstanding. 

Among  the  Turks,  who  have  not,  like  the 
Greeks,  adopted  the  use  of  hearses,  the  dead  are 
always  borne  to  the  cemetery  on  the  shoulders 
of  the  living,  followed  by  a  long  procession  of 
men  as  mourners.  It  is  considered  a  meritorious 
act  to  carry  a  dead  body  even  for  a  little  way, 
and  the  bearers  at  a  Moslem  funeral  are  conse- 
quently continually  relieved  by  others  who  wish 
to  obtain  the  benefits  which  the  performance  of 
this  religious  duty  is  believed  to  confer.  The 
only  distinction  made  in  the  decoration  of  the 
coffins  of  men  and  of  women  is  that  that  of  a  man 
carries  the  turban  or  fez  of  its  occupant  sus- 
pended on  a  peg  at  the  head,  and  that  of  a  wo- 
man her  chimber,  or  coif.  No  lugubrious  chants 
or  noisy  demonstrations  of  woe,  such  as  attend 
the  funeral  of  Eastern  Christians  and  Jews  re- 
spectively, mark  the  progress  of  the  Moslem  to 
his  last  resting-place.  The  procession  takes  its 
way  in  reverent  silence  to  the  mosque,  where 
the  first  part  of  the  burial  service  is  read,  which 
includes  several  very  beautiful  prayers.  When 
the  interment  has  been  concluded,  and  the  mourn- 
ers have  dispersed,  the  Imam  remains  a  short 
time  longer  by  the  grave,  in  order,  it  is  said,  to 
prompt  the  deceased  in  his  replies  to  the  "  Ques- 
tioners."    These  are  the  two  angels,  Mounkir 


Religious  Life  and  Thought    173 

and  Nekir,  who,  according  to  the  Moslem  creed, 
enter  the  grave  with  a  dead  man  in  order  to  in- 
terrogate him  concerning  his  faith.  For,  accord- 
ing to  a  belief  common  to  many  Oriental  races, 
the  soul  retains  after  death  some  mysterious  con- 
nection with  the  body,  which  cannot  be  buried 
without  it.  If  the  dead  has  been  a  devout  Mos- 
lem, his  reply  will  be:  "My  God  is  Allah;  my 
prophet,  Mohammed;  my  religion,  Islam;  and 
my  kiblah,  the  holy  Kaaba."  If,  however,  he 
has  been  lax  in  his  religious  duties,  he  will  not 
be  able  to  remember  the  words  of  his  creed. 

If  the  deceased  has  been  well-to-do,  gifts  are 
made  to  the  poor  from  among  his  personal 
effects,  and  money  is  also  distributed.  Three 
days  afterwards  specially  prepared  dishes,  con- 
sisting chiefly  of  pastry  and  fruit,  are  sent  round 
to  the  houses  of  friends,  and  the  poor  also  re- 
ceive their  portion  of  these  funeral  cates,  in  re- 
turn for  which  their  prayers  are  requested  for 
the  soul  of  the  departed.  This  ceremony  is  re- 
peated on  the  seventh  and  fortieth  days  after 
the  funeral,  and  on  the  latter  occasion  a  dole  of 
loaves  is  added.  Prayer  for  the  dead  is,  indeed, 
considered  by  Moslems  an  act  of  religious  duty 
of  the  greatest  importance.  On  their  tombstones 
may  be  seen  engraved  appeals  to  the  passer-by 
to  offer  up  at  the  throne  of  grace  a  fatiha,  or 
recitation  of  the  opening  chapter  of  the  Koran,  a 
customary  act  with  all  true  believers  on  visiting 


174  Turkish  Life 

the  tombs  of  friends  or  the  shrines  of  holy 
men.  No  external  signs  of  mourning  are  used 
by  the  Osmanlis,  either  for  a  funeral  or  subse- 
quently, nor  are  periods  of  seclusion  observed 
by  them  after  the  death  of  a  relative.  Excessive 
sorrow  for  children  is  considered  not  only  sinful, 
but  detrimental  to  their  happiness  and  rest  in 
Paradise.  It  is,  however,  an  act  of  filial  duty  to 
mourn  constantly  for  lost  parents,  and  not  to 
cease  praying  for  their  forgiveness  and  accept- 
ance with  Allah. 

/  Superstitions  innumerable  are  rife  among  all 
creeds  and  nationalities  in  Turkey,  but  for  Turk- 
ish women  almost  every  incident,  ceremony,  or 
social  relation  is  hedged  about  with  fears  and 
omens  and  forebodings.  Whatever  evil  befalls 
a  person  is  the  work  of  supernatural  agencies, 
and  can  only  be  remedied  by  having  recourse  to 
counter-spells.  If  an  article  is  lost  or  broken,  it 
is  the  "evil  eye"  of  some  false  friend  that  has 
caused  the  misfortune.  If  any  one  chances  to 
look  fixedly  at  a  person  or  thing,  he  is  immedi- 
ately accused  of  casting  the  evil  eye  on  it.  Nor 
are  these  beliefs  mere  affectations,  as  they  often 
are  with  us,  but  matters  of  vital  importance. 
For  such  spells  cast  upon  persons  are  believed 
to  exert  a  fatal  influence  on  their  health,  pro- 
sperity, beauty,  personal  attractions,  or  affections. 
A  Turkish  lady,  for  instance,  however  high  her 
rank,  will  almost  invariably  attribute  to  the  influ- 


Religious  Life  and  Thought    175 

ence  of  witchcraft  any  neglect  that  she  may  ex- 
perience from  her  husband. 

The  supernatural  and  magical  beings,  belief  in 
whose  existence  and  uncanny  power  may  be 
said  to  constitute  for  the  Turks,  as  for  Moslems 
generally,  an  article  of  faith,  fall  for  the  most 
part  under  the  denomination  either  of  djins  or 
peris.  Under  the  former  term  are  comprised 
demons  generally,  the  tellestims  which  guard 
ancient  buildings  or  buried  treasures,  and  other 
imaginary  beings  whose  propensities  are  rather 
those  of  the  goblins  of  the  West.  Some  houses 
are  believed  to  be  frequented  by  djins  of  the  last 
description,  who  are  called  ev-sahibi,  "the  Mas- 
ters of  the  House."  If  these  are  good  djins  they 
bring  all  kinds  of  prosperity  to  their  hosts,  and 
no  matter  how  idle  or  extravagant  the  house- 
wife may  be,  everything  goes  well  with  the 
household.  They  are  said  to  be  clothed  in  bridal 
garments,  edged  with  tiny  bells,  the  tinkling 
of  which  announces  their  passage  through  the 
house,  and  they  sometimes  allow  themselves  to 
be  seen  by  those  whom  they  honour  with  their 
favour.  The  wicked  ev-sahibi,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  most  mischievous  in  their  dispositions 
and  destroy  everything  that  comes  in  their  way, 
besides  annoying  the  inhabitants  of  the  houses 
they  enter  by  making  most  intolerable  noises. 
Like  some  supernals,  the  djins  have  the  power 
of  assuming  any  shape  they  please,  from  that  of 


176 


Turkish  Life 


a  shadowy  being  of  colossal  proportions,  or  a 
beautiful  youth  or  maiden,  down  to  that  of  a  cat 
or  mouse,  or  even  a  pitcher  or  broom.  Both 
the  good  djins,  or  peris,  who  serve  Allah,  and 
the  evil  djins  who  are  the  followers  of  Eblis,  are 
believed  to  have  been  created  before  man,  the 
rebellion  of  Satan  having  consisted,  according  to 
Moslems,  in  his  refusing  to  pay  homage  to  the 
newly  created  being  when  commanded  to  do  so 
by  Allah. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

MONASTIC   LIFE 

THE  conventual  establishments  of  the  Dervish 
Orders,  who  constitute  the  monks  and 
saints  of  Islam,  are  to  be  found  wherever  the 
creed  of  Mohammed  has  spread,  and  are  very 
numerous  in  both  the  European  and  Asiatic 
provinces  of  the  Ottoman  Empire.  Many  of 
the  orders  possess  several  tekkehs,  as  their  con- 
vents are  termed,  in  Constantinople  and  its 
suburbs,  and  at  least  one  in  every  important 
town.  These  convents  occupy  for  the  most 
part  picturesque  and  commanding  situations, 
sometimes  in  the  midst  of  crowded  cities,  but 
more  frequently  on  their  outskirts. 

Although  monasticism  is  not  only  contrary  to 
the  spirit  of  Islam,  but  was  expressly  forbidden 
by  its  prophet,  fraternities  of  Moslem  ascetics 
appeared  at  an  early  date  in  the  history  of  that 
religion.  The  austere  and  holy  lives  led  by 
the  generality  of  dervishes,  and  the  possession 
of  supernatural  powers  with  which  they  are 
credited,   have  at  all  times  given   them   great 

12 

177 


178  Turkish  Life 

influence,  and  especially  with  the  ignorant  and 
superstitious  populace.  And  though  this  influ- 
ence has  often  excited  the  hostility  of  the  Ulema 
—  the  legists  and  representatives  of  the  Moslem 
orthodoxy  —  and  occasionally  the  alarm  of  the 
Government,  it  has  invariably  been  utilised  by 
the  Sultans  and  their  generals  to  stimulate  the 
zeal  and  courage  of  their  troops  in  time  of  war. 
Whenever  a  military  campaign  has  been  organ- 
ised, a  number  of  more  fanatical  dervishes  from 
all  the  orders  hasten  to  join  the  army,  and  their 
presence  in  the  camp,  their  prayers  and  exhorta- 
tions maintain  a  religious  enthusiasm  on  the 
march,  and  during  an  action  their  voices  may  be 
heard  above  the  din  of  war,  shouting,  "O  Vic- 
tors!" "O  Martyrs!"  or  the  Moslem  war-cry, 
"Allah!  Allah!"  The  munificence  of  Sultans, 
from  Orchan  downwards,  who  have  attributed 
their  victories  to  the  presence  in  their  armies  of 
these  holy  men,  enabled  the  dervish  shekhs  to 
found  monasteries  and  colleges  in  all  the  con- 
quered provinces;  and  their  subsequent  pro- 
sperity was  so  great  that  the  twelve  orders  which 
existed  at  the  time  of  the  foundation  of  the  Otto- 
man Empire  have  now  increased  to  thirty-six. 

Notwithstanding  that  all  the  dervishes,  in 
accordance  with  their  principle  of  poverty,  are 
nominally  mendicant  and  dependent  for  their 
subsistence  on  the  offerings  of  the  pious  and 
charitable,    begging  is  strictly  forbidden,  save 


Monastic  Life  179 

among  the  Bektashi  and  wandering  orders. 
These,  who  deem  it  meritorious  to  live  upon 
alms,  frequent  the  bazaars  and  public  thorough- 
fares for  the  purpose  of  recommending  them- 
selves to  the  charity  of  the  passer-by,  their 
formula  of  request  being  generally,  M  Something 
for  the  love  of  Allah ! "  Many  Bektashis,  how- 
ever, make  it  a  rule  to  support  themselves  by 
handicraft  trades,  and  particularly  by  making,  in 
imitation  of  their  learned  founder,  Hadji  Bektash, 
such  small  articles  of  wood  and  horn  as  spoons, 
ladles,  bowls,  and  graters.  They  also  carve  out  of 
greenstone,  jade,  and  other  substances  the  fast- 
enings used  by  dervishes  generally  for  the  belts 
and  collars  of  their  garments,  besides  a  variety 
of  symbolic  objects  used  or  worn  on  the  person 
by  members  of  their  own  order. 

The  monastic  brethren  belonging  to  the  well- 
endowed  orders  are  supplied  with  food  and 
lodging  only  at  the  expense  of  the  convent. 
Their  meals,  which  are  very  simple  and  consist 
of  two  dishes  only,  are  usually  eaten  in  the  soli- 
tude of  their  cells;  but  on  certain  occasions  the 
brethren  dine  together  in  the  common  room. 
Each  dervish  is  required  to  provide  himself  with 
clothing  and  other  necessaries,  and,  though  re- 
siding in  the  monastery,  to  follow  some  trade  or 
profession.  Those  who  are  calligraphists  find 
employment  in  copying  the  Koran,  which  is 
always  used  in  manuscript,  and  other  religious 


i8o  Turkish  Life 

books.  If  any  are  without  resources,  they  sel- 
dom fail  to  receive  either  contributions  from 
relatives,  an  allowance  from  their  Shekh,  or 
a  pension  from  some  wealthy  individual.  For, 
though  forbidden  to  solicit  alms,  they  are  allowed 
to  accept  gifts  when  offered  by  the  pious  "for 
the  love  of  Allah."  The  rule  against  mendicancy 
is  also  relaxed  in  the  case  of  dervishes  on  their 
pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Cities  and  shrines  of  Islam, 
as  they  then  are  without  their  usual  means  of 
support.  Many  Mohammedans  reserve  their  alms 
exclusively  for  the  dervishes,  and  make  it  their 
duty  to  seek  out  those  of  high  reputation  for 
sanctity,  visit  them  frequently,  and  supply  their 
wants.  Others,  again,  lodge  and  board  these 
holy  men  in  their  houses,  in  the  hope  of  thus 
drawing  upon  themselves,  their  families,  and 
their  fortunes  the  blessing  of  Heaven. 

The  Mevlevi — commonly  termed  by  Euro- 
peans "the  Dancing  Dervishes" — is  the  most 
popular,  one  might  almost  say  the  most  fashion- 
able, of  all  the  orders;  and  ever  since  its  founda- 
tion in  the  thirteenth  century  by  the  great  mystic 
poet,  Jelal-ud-din,  it  has  included  among  its 
lay  members  men  of  high  rank  and  official  posi- 
tion. Even  Sultans  have  not  disdained  to  don 
the  kulah,  its  distinctive  head-dress,  and  join 
in  the  mystic  gyrations  of  the  "Brethren  of 
Love."  The  Mevlevi  fraternity  is  consequently 
very    prosperous,    and    its    convents    and    the 


Monastic  Life  181 

shrines  of  its  saints  surpass  those  of  all  the  other 
orders. 

The  possession  of  wealth  has  not,  however, 
caused  the  monks  of  Islam  to  depart  from  the 
original  rule  of  their  founders.  Their  manner  of 
life  has  remained  simple  and  frugal  in  the  ex- 
treme; the  architecture  of  their  convents  is  of 
the  plainest  and  most  unpretentious;  while  the 
few  ornaments  they  possess  are  the  gifts  of 
pious  and  grateful  souls.  Their  revenues  are 
applied,  in  the  first  place,  to  the  support  of  the 
Shekh  and  the  resident  dervishes,  and,  in  the 
second,  to  the  relief  of  needy  monasteries  of 
the  same  order,  any  surplus  being  either  given 
directly  to  the  poor  as  alms,  or  employed  in  the 
foundation  of  imarets  —  charitable  institutions, 
such  as  almshouses,  schools,  or  baths,  the  former 
of  which  are  dependencies  of  tekkehs,  or  of 
mosques.  Passing  through  a  great  arched  gate- 
way in  the  wall  which  divides  the  inner  from 
the  outer  court,  the  visitor  may  find  himself  in 
a  wide  rectangular  space  planted  with  shady 
trees,  three  sides  being  occupied  by  the  cells  of 
the  brotherhood,  the  kitchen,  refectory,  etc.,  all 
of  one  story  only,  and  opening  on  a  broad  veran- 
dah, formed  by  the  extended  eaves  of  the  red- 
tiled  roof.  In  the  centre  is  the  chapel,  a  plain, 
square  edifice,  with  a  domed  roof;  in  front  of 
it  a  fountain  for  the  customary  ablutions,  on 
the  margin  of  which  the  pigeons  and  other  birds 


1 82  Turkish  Life 

that  here  find  an  asylum  coo,  twitter,  and  preen 
themselves  perpetually.  Without  are  flower  and 
fruit  gardens,  shaded  by  cypress,  mulberry,  and 
plane  trees,  with  cisterns  for  their  irrigation, 
and  terraces  raised  to  the  height  of  the  enclosing 
walls.  And  here,  when  the  evening  shadows  are 
lengthening,  the  mystics,  in  their  picturesque 
and  symbolic  attire,  may  be  seen  pacing  tran- 
quilly to  and  fro,  or,  seated  on  the  broad  wooden 
benches,  meditatively  passing  through  their 
fingers  the  brown  beads  of  their  rosaries,  on 
their  faces  that  expression  of  perfect  repose 
which  indifference  to  the  world  and  its  doings 
alone  can  give. 

A  dervish  convent  usually  contains  from  fifteen 
to  thirty  brethren,  ruled  over  by  a  Shekh,  or 
abbot,  who  exercises  unlimited  authority  within 
its  walls.  If  it  possesses  landed  property,  he 
sells  the  produce  of  the  farms,  regulates  the 
expenditure  of  the  convent,  and  distributes  its 
alms.  Should  the  convent  have  no  endow- 
ments, he  looks  for  its  support  to  the  pious  and 
charitable — "the  friends  of  Allah."  For,  occu- 
pied as  he  is  supposed  continually  to  be  with 
spiritual  matters,  a  Shekh  cannot,  like  his  sub- 
ordinates, follow  a  worldly  avocation,  but  must 
live,  according  to  the  dervish  expression,  "on 
the  doorstep  of  the  Deity."  The  lay  members 
of  the  order  are  also  expected  to  contribute  to 
his  support  and  to  the  expenses  of  the  convent 


Monastic  Life  183 

generally,  and  it  is  usual  for  them  to  bring  some 
small  offering  every  time  they  visit  him.  As 
every  detail  of  convent  life  is  symbolical,  this 
custom  is  held  to  commemorate  the  offerings 
brought  by  the  angel  Gabriel  to  Adam  after  his 
expulsion  from  Paradise,  which,  tradition  says, 
consisted  of  "small  loaves  and  corn,  with  par- 
rots and  turtle-doves  for  his  entertainment,  and 
swallows  and  hens  for  that  of  Eve." 

The  Shekh  of  a  celibate  order  resides  perma- 
nently in  the  convent,  where  a  special  apartment, 
termed  "the  cell  of  the  Master,"  is  reserved  for 
his  use.  In  some  of  the  orders,  however  —  the 
Mevlevi,  for  instance  —  the  office  of  Shekh  is 
hereditary  and  marriage  is  in  consequence  ob- 
ligatory. Like  most  Ottomans  of  the  present 
day,  dervishes  are  practically  monogamists,  and 
take  a  second  wife  only  when  their  office  is 
hereditary,  and  the  first  wife  childless.  A  mar- 
ried Shekh  appoints  a  deputy,  called  the  Naib 
Khalifeh,  who  rules  over  the  monastery  in  his 
absence  with  an  authority  equal  to  his  own. 
Twelve  being  the  symbolical  number  of  the 
Bektashi  order,  their  communities  include  twelve 
elders,  each  of  whom  has  some  special  office 
assigned  to  him,  and  occupies  one  of  the  twelve 
sheepskin  mats  which  form  the  seats  of  honour 
in  their  assemblies.  These  elders  rank  in  the 
following  order:  (1)  The  Shekh;  (2)  the  Deputy 
Shekh;    (3)  the  Cook;    (4)  the  Baker;    (5)  the 


1 84  Turkish  Life 

Superintendent;  (6)  the  Steward ;  (7)  the  Coffee- 
maker;  (8)  the  Almoner;  (9)  the  Sacrificer;  (10) 
the  Groom;  (11)  the  Servant  of  the  Convent; 
(12)  the  Attendant  on  the  Guests.  In  the  other 
orders  the  resident  dervishes  also  perform  duties 
similar  to  these  for  the  benefit  of  the  fraternity. 

The  rules  observed  in  the  admission  of  new 
members  into  a  brotherhood,  though  substan- 
tially the  same  in  all  orders,  differ  somewhat  in 
the  severity  of  the  discipline  imposed  on  a 
neophyte,  in  the  length  of  his  period  of  proba- 
tion, and  in  various  minor  details.  A  candidate 
for  admission  to  the  Mevlevi  order  is,  for  in- 
stance, required  to  perform  an  uninterrupted 
novitiate  of  a  thousand  and  one  days.  Should 
he  fail  in  a  single  day's  duties,  or  be  absent  from 
the  monastery  for  one  whole  night,  his  probation 
must  be  recommenced.  Whatever  his  worldly 
rank,  he  must  be  subordinate  to  every  member 
of  the  brotherhood,  being  instructed  in  his  duties 
by  the  ashdji-bashi,  or  head  of  the  kitchen.  He 
spends  much  of  his  time  in  meditation,  and  in 
committing  to  memory  the  prayers  and  passages 
of  the  Koran  more  especially  used  by  his  order. 
Having  passed  through  this  period  of  probation 
to  the  satisfaction  of  the  ashdji-bashi,  that  func- 
tionary, who  acts  as  his  sponsor,  reports  him  to 
the  Shekh  as  worthy  of  admission  to  the  brother- 
hood. A  meeting  is  convened  in  the  private 
assembly   room   of  the  community,   and   with 


Monastic  Life  185 

many  symbolic  ceremonies,  which  vary  in  each 
order,  accompanied  by  prayers  and  exhortations, 
the  probationer  takes  the  vows,  and  is  formally 
accepted  as  a  member  of  the  community.  The 
Mureed,  as  he  is  now  termed,  is  not  yet,  how- 
ever, looked  upon  as  an  accomplished  dervish. 
He  has,  indeed,  merely  entered  on  "the  Path," 
and  several  successive  stages  of  spiritual  ad- 
vancement must  be  passed  through  before  he 
reaches  that  which  will  entitle  him  to  become  in 
his  turn  a  "Guide"  to  others. 

The  collective  devotions  of  the  Mevlevi,  Rufai, 
Sadi,  Kadiri,  and  a  few  of  the  "  vocative"  orders 
are  performed  in  public,  and  even  non-Moslems, 
who  are  rarely  admitted  into  the  mosques  at 
the  hours  of  prayer,  are  made  welcome  in  the 
convents  of  such  orders.  The  devotions  of  the 
"  Contemplatives  "  are,  however,  strictly  private, 
and  do  not,  indeed,  appear  to  be  of  a  character 
to  attract  outsiders.  The  devr,  or  exercise,  of 
the  Mevlevis  differs  entirely  from  that  of  the 
other  orders,  and  is  accompanied  by  instru- 
mental music.  The  service  begins  with  the 
recitation  of  prayers  and  passages  from  the 
Koran,  followed  by  a  pleasing  performance  on 
the  flutes,  zithers,  and  tiny  drums  of  which  the 
orchestra  chiefly  consists.  The  brethren,  who 
have  meanwhile  been  seated  on  the  floor  round 
the  circular  space,  now  rise,  throw  off  their 
cloaks,   and  advance  in   single  file,  with  arms 


1 86  Turkish  Life 

crossed  on  their  breasts  and  downcast  eyes,  to 
the  Shekh.  Bowing  to  right  and  left  of  the 
prayer-mat  on  which  he  stands,  they  kiss  his 
hand,  and  in  return  receive  from  him  a  kiss  on 
their  tall  sugarloaf-shaped  hats.  This  done,  they 
immediately  begin  to  spin  round,  balancing 
themselves  on  the  left  foot,  while  maintaining  a 
rotary  motion.  Gradually  the  arms  of  the  devo- 
tees are  unfolded  and  extended,  the  right  hand 
raised  with  the  palm  upwards,  and  the  left  low- 
ered with  the  palm  downward;  the  eyes  are 
closed,  and  the  head  is  inclined  towards  the  left 
shoulder.  Mentally  reciting  the  invocation  of 
"Allah!  Allah!"  they  whirl  round  the  Hall  of 
Celestial  Sounds,  the  faces  of  even  the  youngest 
neophytes  wearing  an  expression  of  devout 
serenity  as  they  revolve  to  the  sound  of  the 
reed-flutes,  a  music  which  appears  to  have  an 
entrancing  effect  on  those  who  understand  its 
mystic  language.  For  to  the  dervish  "  lovers  of 
Allah  "  it  is  said  to  express  the  harmony  of  His 
creation,  in  which  they  circle  like  the  planets  of 
the  empyrean,  detached  from  the  world,  in  a 
rapture  of  spiritual  love  and  communion  with 
the  Eternal. 

Among  the  Rufai,  Kadiri,  and  other  "  voca- 
tive "  orders  the  collective  religious  exercise  con- 
sists in  the  dervishes'  holding  each  other  by  the 
hand,  or  pressing  closely  together,  and  increas- 
ing the  movements  of  their  bodies  at  every  step 


Monastic  Life  187 

they  take  in  making  the  round  of  their  hall,  those 
gifted  with  greater  powers  of  endurance  and 
more  excitable  temperaments  striving  by  their 
exertions  to  excite  the  rest.  These,  after  a  time, 
throw  aside— or  rather  hand  to  the  Shekh  after 
kissing  it — their  taj,  or  head-dress,  form  an  in- 
ner circle,  entwine  their  arms,  and  press  their 
shoulders  together,  repeating  incessantly,  "  Ya 
Allah!  "  or  "  Ya  Hoof  "  TheRufai,  or  "howl- 
ing "  dervishes,  not  only  exceed  the  other  orders 
in  the  violence  of  their  exercises,  but  in  their 
strange  religious  frenzy  occasionally  cut  them- 
selves with  knives,  sear  their  flesh  with  hot  irons, 
and  swallow  fire,  all  without  evincing  any  sign 
of  pain,  but  rather  as  if  these  wounds  caused 
them  exquisite  pleasure.  When  all  have  finally 
sunk  exhausted  and  apparently  unconscious  on 
the  floor,  their  Shekh  leaves  his  prayer-mat,  and 
walking  from  one  prostrate  devotee  to  another, 
he  whispers  in  his  ear  some  mystic  word  which 
recalls  him  to  life,  breathes  upon  his  face,  and 
anoints  his  wounds  with  saliva.  It  is  said,  and 
indeed  commonly  believed  by  the  Moslem  spec- 
tators, that  all  traces  of  these  self-inflicted  injuries 
disappear  in  the  course  of  twenty-four  hours. 

The  dervishes  make  use  among  themselves  of 
special  forms  of  salutation.  That  in  general  use 
among  the  orders  is  "  Ya  Hoo  !  " — "  O  Him!  " 
(the  Deity) ;  but  as  love  is  the  leading  principle 
of  the  Mevlevis,  their  mutual  greeting  is  "  Eshk 


1 88  Turkish  Life 

olsoun  !  "  ("  Let  it  be  love!  ")  After  the  formal 
reception  of  a  neophyte  into  an  order,  the  only 
salutation  required  of  him  on  entering  the  assem- 
bly is  an  inclination  of  the  head  towards  the 
Shekh,  with  the  right  hand  placed  on  the  left 
shoulder,  a  gesture  symbolic  of  perfect  submis- 
sion to  him.  On  asking  for  hospitality  at  a  con- 
vent, Turkish  travellers  use  the  formula,  "  Allah 
is  our  Friend!  Peace  be  to  the  dwellers  in  this 
tekheh  !  Love  to  those  who  are  joyful;  to  all  the 
Poor  Men  (i.  e.,  dervishes)  here;  and  to  their 
Shekhs  who  dwell  in  the  house  of  the  Shah  (the 
Khalif  Ali. )  "  The  ' '  grace  before  meat "  used  by 
the  orders  varies  only  in  the  addition  by  each  of 
the  name  of  its  Pir,  or  founder.  That  of  the 
Kadiri  runs  thus:  "Praise  be  to  Allah!  may  He 
increase  His  bounties !  By  the  blessings  of  Abra- 
ham, by  the  light  of  the  Prophet,  by  the  grace 
of  Ali,  by  the  war-cry  of  Mohammed,  by  the 
secret  of  Abdul  Kadir  Ghilani,  we  beseech  Thee 
to  be  gracious  to  our  founder!  " 

Though  all  dervishes  are  free  to  leave  the  order 
into  which  they  have  originally  entered  and  to 
join  another,  or  even  to  return  to  the  world,  they 
rarely  make  use  of  this  liberty.  Each  seems  to 
consider  it  a  sacred  duty  and  privilege  to  remain 
faithful  for  life  to  the  brotherhood  with  whom  he 
has  performed  his  novitiate,  and  to  weartheirgarb 
to  the  end  of  his  days.  To  this  spirit  of  devotion 
to  their  order  they  add  that  of  perfect  submis- 


Monastic  Life  189 

sion  to  the  will  of  their  Shekh.  "  Consider  your 
Guide  as  the  greatest  of  all  Guides,"  and,  "In 
your  every  deed  and  thought  let  your  Guide  be 
always  present  to  your  mind,"  are  the  primary 
obligations  of  a  dervish.  Humility  of  spirit  and 
demeanour  is  required  of  all ;  they  must  not  con- 
sider themselves  superior  to  others,  but  as  the 
poorest  and  lowliest  of  mankind.  Hence,  not 
only  in  the  cloister,  but  in  all  their  dealings  with 
the  outer  world,  they  are  distinguished  by  a  deep 
humility  of  manner.  They  walk  abroad  with 
bowed  heads  and  absorbed  expression,  and  the 
words,  "Thanks  to  Allah!"  are  ever  on  their 
lips. 

As  above  remarked,  a  dervish  Shekh  is,  as  a 
rule,  "the  husband  of  one  wife,"  and  marries  a 
second  spouse  only  when  the  first  happens  to  be 
childless  and  his  office  is  hereditary.  Such  a 
contingency  arose  in  the  household  of  the  Mev- 
levi  Shekh  of  Magnesia  in  Asia  Minor  (Magnesia 
sub  Sipylum),  a  dignitary  who  ranks  next  in 
the  order  to  its  chief  at  Konieh ;  and  a  descrip- 
tion of  a  visit  paid  shortly  after  his  second  mar- 
riage may  not  perhaps  be  out  of  place  in  this 
chapter.  I  happened  to  be  one  of  a  party  invited 
to  accompany  a  Government  official  on  a  day  ex- 
cursion to  this  most  picturesque  and  interest- 
ing old  Asian  city,  built  on  the  lower  slope  of 
the  steep  and  rugged  Sipylus.  After  a  picnic 
luncheon  in  the  garden  of  the  railway-station,  to 


i9°  Turkish  Life 

which  the  obliging  Levantine  chef  de  gare  had 
added  a  bowl  of  delicious  native  clotted  cream  and 
a  Cassaba  water-melon,  we  set  off  up  the  town, 
the  gentlemen  to  pay  their  respects  to  the  Shekh 
of  the  Mevlevi  dervishes,  who  was  well  known 
to  the  Commissioner,  and  the  ladies  to  visit  the 
Shekh's  harem,  a  messenger  having  been  sent  on 
beforehand,  according  to  Turkish  etiquette,  to 
announce  our  coming.  The  courtyard  gate  of 
the  haremlik  was  opened  to  us  by  an  old  woman, 
who  kept  her  face  concealed  with  unnecessary 
care  from  the  gaze  of  any  chance  passer-by,  and 
we  were  conducted  up  an  outside  staircase  to  a 
broad  wooden  balcony,  on  which  all  the  living- 
rooms  opened.  Over  the  doors  hung  the  leath- 
ern portieres  so  common  in  Turkish  houses;  and, 
raising  one  of  these,  the  servant  held  it  back 
while  we  entered  the  divan-khane,  or  reception- 
room,  a  small  apartment  warmed  by  a  charcoal 
brazier,  and  furnished  simply  but  comfortably 
enough  in  Oriental  fashion.  A  rather  pretty  and 
pleasant  -  looking  young  woman,  with  brown 
hair  and  eyes,  the  Shekh's  second  wife,  uncurled 
herself  and  rose  from  the  divan  on  which  she 
had  been  sitting  cross-legged.  She  salaamed 
low  in  acknowledgment  of  Madame  the  Com- 
missioner's wife's  temend  ;  and  seeing  with  ready 
tact  that  we  foreigners  were  unequal  to  the  per- 
formance of  this  graceful  Oriental  salutation,  she 
offered  her  hand  to  each  of  us  in  turn,  and  mo- 


Monastic  Life  19 1 

tioned  to  us  to  be  seated.  Presently  the  Bash 
Kadin,  or  first  wife,  entered  the  room.  She  was 
a  tall,  dark,  imperious-looking  person,  just  be- 
ginning to  lose  the  first  freshness  of  youth.  Her 
long  black  hair  hung  in  two  thick  braids  from 
below  a  yellow  muslin  kerchief,  bound  tightly 
round  her  head,  and  her  dark  eyebrows  were 
artificially  extended  till  they  met  over  the  nose. 
She  was  dressed,  like  the  Ikindji  Kadin,  in  a 
long,  trailing  gown  of  brightly  patterned  stuff, 
over  which  she  wore  a  fur-lined  jacket  of  printed 
cashmere.  This  lady  saluted  us  much  more 
formally  than  her  companion  had  done,  and,  with 
a  frigid  acknowledgment  of  the  profound  salaam 
of  the  other  visitor  present, — a  fat  little  woman 
with  a  baby, — she  swept  to  her  own  corner  of 
the  divan,  whence  she  directed  her  conversation 
solely  to  her  European  guests.  The  fat  lady, 
evidently  snubbed,  retired  within  herself,  and  di- 
vided her  attention  between  her  baby  and  the 
sweets  and  coffee  that  were  from  time  to  time 
brought  in  and  handed  round  by  slaves.  Half  an 
hour  is  the  minimum  of  time  in  which  a  Turkish 
visit  can  be  paid;  but  as  soon  as  etiquette  per- 
mitted, we  rose  to  take  our  leave.  The  second 
wife's  own  special  attendant,  a  pretty  Circassian 
girl,  brown-haired  and  blue-eyed,  who  was 
waiting  outside  on  the  balcony,  showed  us  the 
way  to  the  selamlik  through  a  door  in  the  court- 
yard  wall.      Beyond   this   she    might   not  go. 


192  Turkish  Life 

Crossing  another  little  court  we  were  met  at  the 
door  of  the  Shekh's  apartments  by  a  handsome 
youth  of  sixteen  or  so  in  the  dress  of  a  Mevlevi 
dervish — tall  sugarloaf  shaped  hat  of  camel's  hair 
felt,  without  brim,  and  long  mantle  of  fawn-col- 
oured cloth— who  conducted  us  to  the  presence 
of  his  master.  We  found  him  alone,  the  gentle- 
men of  our  party  having,  it  appeared,  just  left  to 
call  on  the  Turkish  Governor.  The  Shekh  was 
a  tall,  dignified  man,  in  the  prime  of  life,  with 
handsome  and  refined  features,  dressed  in  the 
same  costume  as  his  attendant  neophyte,  with 
the  addition  of  a  green  turban  wound  round  his 
sugarloaf  hat.  After  some  general  conversation, 
our  host  asked  if  we  would  like  to  see  some  of 
the  sights  of  the  town.  He  would  send  one  of 
his  probationers  with  us  as  guide,  as  he  himself 
had,  unfortunately,  an  engagement.  The  Shekh 
clapped  his  hands — the  Oriental  substitute  for  an 
electric  bell — and  the  youth  we  had  before  seen 
made  his  appearance.  On  receiving  the  orders 
of  his  superior,  Selim  bowed  respectfully  to  him 
with  his  hands  crossed  on  his  breast,  saluted  us 
with  the  customary  temend,  and  then  led  the  way 
into  the  street.  We  were  soon  fairly  climbing 
the  mountain-side,  and  the  streets  became  regu- 
larly terraced  staircases.  As  this  was  rather 
fatiguing  to  those  unaccustomed  to  such  thor- 
oughfares, our  guide  good-naturedly  took  up  on 
his  shoulder  the  Commissioner's  little  daughter, 


Monastic  Life  193 

a  child  of  eight.  As  he  did  so,  some  Moslem 
boys,  who  had  collected  to  stare  at  the  strangers, 
asked  him,  with  the  fanaticism  and  assurance 
usually  found  in  conjunction  with  complete  ig- 
norance and  inexperience,  "if  he  were  not 
ashamed  to  be  going  about  with  Giaours?" 
The  neophyte  made  no  reply,  but  turned  again 
with  an  apologetic  smile  to  reply  to  a  remark 
made  by  the  child's  mother.  Had  this  mere 
boy,  I  asked  myself,  already  learnt  the  lesson  of 
self-control,  which  forms  so  important  a  part  of 
dervish  discipline  ? 

We  ascended  the  old  tower  to  inspect  the 
mechanism  of  the  wooden  clock,  which  reminded 
me  of  a  much  more  antiquated  Chinese  timepiece 
in  a  temple  in  Canton,  and  from  the  same  vant- 
age-ground we  were  able  to  enjoy  the  grand  views 
spread  out  before  and  around  us.  At  our  feet 
were  the  red-tiled  roofs  of  the  town,  interspersed 
with  trees,  now  leafless,  save  the  tall,  sombre 
cypresses,  among  which  rose  the  domes  and 
minarets  of  twenty  mosques;  while  in  front  and 
far  below  us  stretched  the  wide  and  fertile  plain 
watered  by  the  Hermus  and  its  tributary,  the 
Hyllus;  and  beyond  it,  again,  the  Sardene  Mount- 
ains, beyond  which,  faintly  visible  in  the  blue 
haze,  could  be  seen  the  snow-capped  peaks  of 
distant  Ida,  the  scene  of  the  tragic  story  of  Paris 
and  CEnone.  But  the  shadows  were  lengthen- 
ing, and  Selim  was  anxious  to  conduct  us  to  the 
13 


194  Turkish  Life 

mausoleum  in  which  a  dervish  saint  lies  buried. 
Like  most  edifices  of  the  kind,  it  consists  of  a 
domed  central  apartment,  with  rooms  attached 
for  the  accommodation  of  the  dervishes  who 
act  as  guardians  of  the  shrine.  On  either  side  of 
the  doorway  are  serpentine  columns  of  red  por- 
phyry, relics,  no  doubt,  of  some  Byzantine 
church  once  existent  in  the  neighbourhood. 
Selim  slipped  off  his  shoes  on  the  threshold,  and 
then,  for  a  moment,  seemed  puzzled  as  he  looked 
at  our  boots.  Only  for  a  moment,  however. 
Asking  us  to  await  his  return,  he  disappeared 
into  the  edifice.  Presently  emerging  with  a 
smile  on  his  face,  and  his  hands  full  of  roomy 
slippers,  he  proceeded  to  put  them  on  over  our 
boots,  and  then  led  the  way  into  the  sacred  pre- 
cincts— for  to  Moslems  a  turbeh,  being  the  rest- 
ing-place of  a  holy  man,  is  as  sacred  as  a  mosque. 
In  the  centre  of  the  turbeh  stood  the  tomb  of  the 
saint,  an  erection  of  masonry  about  four  feet  high, 
rising  to  a  ridge  at  the  centre,  and  lower  at  the 
foot  than  at  the  head,  where  a  turban  of  a  pecul- 
iar shape  indicated  the  character  of  the  occupant. 
Rich  shawls  and  draperies  completely  concealed 
the  sarcophagus,  save  at  the  end  beneath  the 
turban,  where,  in  a  niche,  a  small  oil-lamp  was 
burning.  At  the  foot  squatted  a  couple  of  wild, 
outlandish-looking  pilgrims  from  Central  Asia, 
repeating  the  Fatiha, — the  opening  chapter  of 
the  Koran, — the  Moslem  Paternoster  before  men- 


Monastic  Life  195 

tloned,  and  other  formulas  customary  on  visiting 
the  shrines  of  the  saints  of  Islam.  The  only  or- 
naments on  the  whitewashed  walls  were  illum- 
inated texts  from  the  Koran,  and  the  unglazed  and 
grated  windows  gave  the  apartment  a  bare  and 
prison-like  appearance.  As  we  could  not  recite 
faiihas,  we  honoured  the  memory  of  the  de- 
parted by  giving  a  liberal  bakshish  to  his  living 
guardians,  chiefly,  however,  for  the  sake  of 
Selim's  feelings,  to  whom  we  had  become  quite 
attached  during  our  walk.  For  though,  as  a  der- 
vish neophyte,  he  was  now,  according  to  the 
rules  of  the  order  to  which  he  had  been  prom- 
ised by  his  parents  at  his  birth,  and  to  whom  he 
himself  aspired  to  belong,  performing  for  a  thou- 
sand and  one  days  the  menial  duties  connected 
with  the  tekkeh,  Selim  belonged  to  a  family 
equal  in  worldly  position  to  that  of  his  spiritual 
master,  the  Shekh. 

In  addition  to  the  cloistered  brethren,  the  Der- 
vish Orders  include  in  their  ranks  a  vast  number 
of  affiliated  laymen,  who  subscribe  to  their  tenets 
and  join  in  the  religious  exercises  in  the  tekkehs. 
The  Bektashi  Order,  it  is  said,  possesses  not 
fewer  than  80,000  adherents  among  the  Albani- 
ans alone,  and  reigning  Sultans  are  usually  hon- 
orary members  of  several  orders. 


CHAPTER  IX 

EDUCATION  AND  CULTURE 

IN  Turkey  at  the  present  day  two  distinct  sys- 
tems of  State  education  exist  side  by  side — 
the  ancient,  instituted  at  the  Conquest  and  com- 
mon to  all  Moslem  countries,  and  the  modern, 
initiated  in  the  earlier  half  of  the  last  century,  and 
greatly  developed  during  the  last  forty  years. 
The  educational  establishments  belonging  to  the 
first  class  comprise  the  Mahallah-Mektebs  or 
parish  schools,  and  the  Medressehs  or  mosque 
colleges,  both  supported  by  the  funds  of  the 
mosque  of  which  they  are  generally  depend- 
encies. There  is  perhaps  no  country  in  Europe 
in  which  primary  education  was  provided  for  at 
so  early  a  date  as  in  Turkey,  or  so  many  induce- 
ments held  out  to  poor  parents  to  allow  their 
children  to  participate  in  its  benefits.  The  Mek- 
tebs  afford  rudimentary  instruction  to  children  of 
both  sexes,  who  usually  begin  to  attend  them  at 
a  very  early  age,  paying  for  the  privilege  a  nomi- 
nal fee  amounting  to  about  two  shillings  a  year, 
though  at  some  of  these  mosque  schools  each 
196 


Education  and  Culture        197 

pupil  is  entitled  to  receive  two  suits  of  clothing 
a  year,  while  at  others  free  meals  and  pocket- 
money  are  distributed. 

The  first  day  of  a  child's  school  life  is  considered 
so  important  an  event  that  it  is  celebrated  with 
a  little  ceremony  as  interesting  as  it  is  quaint. 
Dressed  in  his  holiday  suit,  and  bedecked  with 
all  the  jewels  and  personal  ornaments  which  his 
parents  possess  or  can  borrow  for  the  occasion, 
his  little  fez  almost  concealed  with  strings  of  gold 
coins,  pendants,  pearl  tassels,  and  various  little 
objects  worn  as  charms  against  "the  evil  eye," 
and  his  finger-tips  tinged  with  henna,  he  is 
mounted  on  a  superbly  caparisoned  horse,  and 
led  in  pompous  procession  through  the  streets  of 
the  neighbourhood.  In  front  of  him  his  future 
instructors  walk  backwards,  slowly  and  gravely, 
as  if  to  prolong  the  ceremony.  Behind  him  one 
boy  carries  on  a  silken  cushion  a  copy  of  the 
Koran,  to  know  which  holy  book  by  heart  en- 
titles a  youth  or  maiden  to  the  honourable  title 
of  Hafii ;  another  bears  his  folding  book-stand, 
of  walnut-wood  inlaid  with  mother-of-pearl,  on 
which  the  sacred  volume  is  placed  when  open  ; 
a  third  holds  his  chanta,  or  writing-case  of  vel- 
vet, embroidered  with  stars  and  crescents  in  gold 
thread.  Behind  these  come  all  his  future  school- 
fellows, walking  two  and  two,  and  chanting 
verses  said  to  have  been  composed  by  the  Prophet, 
extolling  the  pleasures  of  knowledge,  exhorting 


198  Turkish  Life 

to  love  of  one's  neighbour,  inciting  to  industry, 
and  concluding  with  good  wishes  for  their  new 
companion,  eulogies  of  his  parents  and  teachers, 
and  finally,  glorification  of  the  Sultan,  all  the  by- 
standers loyally  joining  in  the  refrain  of  Amin  ! 
Amin!  On  returning  to  the  boy's  home,  his 
father  distributes  coppers  to  his  school-fellows, 
and  also  to  all  the  poor  folk  sure  to  be  collected 
round  the  gateway.  This  ceremony  is  repeated 
when  the  boy  passes  his  first  examination,  his 
hodja  being  presented  at  the  same  time  with  a 
Turkish  lira  (185.)  and  a  suit  of  linen. 

The  masters  of  these  schools  are  at  the  same 
time  functionaries  of  the  mosques  to  which  they 
are  attached,  and  the  instruction  given  in  them  is 
chiefly  of  a  religious  character,  though  elementary 
lessons  in  reading  and  writing  have  of  late  years 
been  added  to  the  curriculum.  Squatting  in  rows 
on  the  matted  floor,  the  children  learn  partly  from 
their  books  and  partly  by  rote,  reciting  the  les- 
sons in  unison,  while  the  hodja,  who  sits  cross- 
legged  at  a  low  desk,  expounds  to  them  the 
Koran,  which,  being  in  Arabic,  is  not  easily  un- 
derstood by  the  infant  mind. 

The  Medressehs,  or  mosque  colleges,  resemble 
in  some  respects  the  universities  of  Western 
Europe  as  they  existed  in  mediaeval  days,  and 
owe  their  origin  to  the  munificence  of  Sultans 
and  grandees  of  former  centuries,  whose  endow- 
ments of  the  mosques  supported  also  their  edu- 


Education  and  Culture        199 

cational  and  charitable  dependencies,  the  lectures 
being  very  frequently  given  in  the  mosque  itself. 
The  revenues  of  the  majority  of  these  religious 
foundations  have,  of  late  years,  owing  to  changes 
in  their  administration,  greatly  diminished.  For- 
merly the  students  invariably  received,  in  addi- 
tion to  free  quarters,  certain  daily  rations  from 
the  college  kitchen,  and  oil  for  their  lamps,  but 
in  many  cases  such  free  commons  can  now  only 
be  dealt  out  on  special  days,  and  the  edifices 
themselves  can  hardly  be  saved  from  ruin.  The 
students'  quarters  are  usually  built  in  the  form  of 
a  quadrangle  surrounding  a  courtyard,  and  the 
arrangements  are  quite  mediaeval  in  character, 
several  youths  often  occupying  one  apartment, 
in  which  they  study,  sleep,  and  do  their  cooking, 
besides  having,  as  freshmen,  to  "fag"  for  the 
tutor  who  supervises  their  studies.  Very  poor 
many  of  these  students  are  ;  but  living  is  cheap 
in  Turkey,  and  from  twelve  shillings  to  fifteen 
shillings  per  month  suffices  for  their  subsistence. 
There  are  in  the  capital  more  than  a  hundred  of 
these  Medressehs,  and  one  or  more  may  be  found 
in  every  provincial  town. 

Antiquated  as  they  now  appear,  these  Moham- 
medan colleges  constituted  in  former  centuries 
important  centres  of  learning,  as  not  only  theo- 
logical teaching  was  given  in  them,  but  also 
instruction  in  all  the  branches  of  human  know- 
ledge then  available,  and  in  their  libraries  many 


200  Turkish  Life 

valuable  manuscripts  have  been  preserved.  At 
the  present  day  the  main  subjects  of  study  in  the 
Medressehs  may  be  classed  under  the  heads  of 
Theology  and  Language.  The  former  includes, 
besides  knowledge  of  the  Koran  and  the  Hadis 
or  Traditions,  with  the  commentaries  thereon, 
Moslem  law  ;  and  language  includes  grammar, 
rhetoric,  poetry,  and  calligraphy.  It  may  thus 
be  readily  understood  that  the  instruction  given 
in  the  mosque  schools  and  colleges  is  of  a  very 
conservative  character,  and  not  calculated  to  ad- 
vance the  cause  of  general  enlightenment  in  the 
country.  Seeing,  however,  that  all  the  numer- 
ous poets,  historians,  and  philosophers  of  whose 
literary  eminence  Turkey  can  rightly  boast  were, 
until  quite  recently,  graduates  of  the  Medressehs, 
it  cannot  be  denied  that  they  have  done  good 
service  in  their  time,  and  more  than  justified 
their  existence. 

In  olden  days  the  population  of  Turkey  was 
divided  into  two  distinct  classes,  the  Ulema,  or 
learned,  and  the  unlettered,  the  former  compris- 
ing only  the  graduates  of  the  Medressehs,  from 
whose  ranks  came  those  who  were  at  the  same 
time  the  exponents  of  religious  dogma  and  the 
administrators  of  the  law  of  the  land,  there  being 
at  that  time  no  secular  system  of  jurisprudence 
as  at  present.  The  changes  in  the  legal  admin- 
istration effected  during  the  past  century  have, 
however,  deprived  the  mosque  colleges  of  their 


Education  and  Culture        201 

former  importance,  and  admission  to  them  is  now 
sought  principally  by  those  who  aspire  to  become 
members  of  the  Ulema,  functionaries  of  the 
mosques,  professors  in  the  Medressehs,  or  prac- 
titioners in  what  may  be  termed  the  Ecclesiastical 
Courts,  presided  over  by  the  Shekh-ul-Islam. 
Certain  privileges  are,  however,  secured  to  those 
who  become  Softas,  as  the  students  in  these 
seminaries  are  called.  Among  these,  that  of  ex- 
emption for  life  from  military  service  induces 
many  young  men  who  have  no  vocation  for  the 
study  of  theology  to  pass  at  least  the  prelimin- 
ary examination  in  Arabic  and  the  subjects  taught 
in  that  language,  which  will  entitle  them  to  this 
privilege,  even  if  they  subsequently  adopt  another 
career.  The  number  of  Sofias  accommodated  in 
the  Medressehs  of  the  capital  at  the  present  day 
is  estimated  at  about  six  thousand,  most  of  whom 
are  quite  impecunious  ;  and  in  the  great  religious 
centres,  such  as  Konieh,  the  ancient  Iconium, 
they  are  also  very  numerous.  The  diminished 
revenues  of  the  religious  foundations  no  longer 
affording  free  rations  at  the  Medressehs  as  here- 
tofore, many  of  the  undergraduates  during  the 
month  of  Ramazan  visit  the  provincial  towns 
and  villages,  where  they  preach  or  do  special 
duty  in  the  mosques,  returning  equipped  with 
funds  derived  from  fees  and  alms-gifts  sufficient 
to  enable  them  to  continue  their  frugal  college 
life.     As  a  body,  the  Softas  exercise  considerable 


202  Turkish  Life 

influence.  They  have  almost  invariably  taken  a 
prominent  part  in  revolutions  and  other  political 
events,  and  constitute  the  most  fanatical  and 
dangerous  section  of  the  population,  hostile,  as 
a  rule,  to  every  innovation  or  attempt  at  reform. 
The  authorities,  too,  have  on  Occasion  not 
scrupled  to  make  use  of  their  agency  for  the 
purpose  of  awakening  that  spirit  of  savage  big- 
otry which,  save  when  so  stirred,  slumbers 
peacefully  in  the  heart  of  the  Turkish  peasant 
and  artisan.  An  energetic  Sultan  in  modern 
times  has,  on  the  other  hand,  more  than  once 
found  it  expedient  to  disperse  some  of  these 
communities,  and  close  their  college  ;  and  the 
present  Sultan,  in  the  pursuance  of  his  policy  of 
suppression,  has  naturally  not  neglected  to  take 
precautionary  measures  with  respect  to  this  once 
redoubtable  body,  which  render  impossible  any 
collective  action  on  their  part  against  the  existing 
government. 

In  addition  to  the  parish  Mektebs,  there  are  now 
in  the  capital  and  all  the  larger  towns  State- 
supported  preparatory  schools  called  Rushdiyeh, 
to  which  boys  are  admitted  gratuitously,  and 
taught,  beside  reading  and  writing,  such  usual 
elementary  subjects  as  arithmetic,  Turkish  his- 
tory, and  geography.  In  the  Idadiyeh,  or  sec- 
ondary schools,  which  are  also  State-supported, 
but  very  inadequate  in  number,  elder  boys  receive 
more  specialised  instruction  while  qualifying  for 


Education  and  Culture        203 

admission  to  one  of  the  many  modern  schools 
and  colleges  modelled  on  the  system  of  the  edu- 
cational institutions  of  France  and  Germany,  in 
which  all  the  subjects  necessitated  by  modern 
requirements  are  taught.  Among  these  are  State 
military  schools  and  colleges,  a  naval  college, 
medical  colleges,  civil  and  military,  besides  vari- 
ous institutions  specially  devoted  to  the  training 
of  civil  servants,  lawyers,  civil  engineers,  and 
a  Lyceum  organised  in  imitation  of  such  estab- 
lishments as  they  exist  in  France.  In  the  last, 
founded  in  1869  by  the  joint  efforts  of  Ali  and 
Fuad  Pashas,  the  great  reforming  statesmen,  it  was 
proposed  to  afford  to  all  subjects  of  the  Sultan 
irrespective  of  race  and  creed,  the  opportunity  of 
obtaining  a  liberal  education.  Notwithstanding 
the  difficulties  which  naturally  arose  in  connection 
with  organising  a  system  of  education  taking 
account  of  the  prejudices  of  members  of  three 
different  religious  systems,  the  Lyceum  was 
opened  with  some  three  hundred  and  fifty  stu- 
dents, belonging  to  seven  different  sects,  and  in 
two  years'  time  the  attendance  was  doubled. 
The  lessons  generally  were  given  in  French  by 
French  professors,  and  every  facility  was  afforded 
for  the  acquisition  of  other  languages,  classical 
and  modern.  The  project  of  establishing  pro- 
vincial colleges  in  connection  with  the  Lyceum 
fell  through.  But  the  original  institution  contin- 
ued to  prosper  until  the  death  of  its  enlightened 


204  Turkish  Life 

founders,  after  which  many  things,  besides  the 
management  of  the  Lyceum,  went  from  bad  to 
worse  ;  and  the  later  removal  of  the  college  to 
Stamboul  has  entirely  deprived  it  of  the  cosmo- 
politan character  which  was  the  great  aim  of 
those  responsible  for  its  foundation.  But  the 
usefulness  of  all  the  educational  establishments 
of  modern  institution  has  been  seriously  inter- 
fered with  and  retarded  by  the  new  Palace  sys- 
tem, the  object  of  which  is  to  crush  the  growing 
spirit  of  liberalism,  and  prevent  the  spread  of 
progressive  ideas  among  Moslems.  It  is  true 
that  a  year  ago  a  project  was  mooted  of  founding 
at  Constantinople  a  university  similar  to  those 
of  European  countries ;  but  it  is  to  be  feared  that 
it  will  be  long  ere  this  can  take  practical  shape. 

The  American  institution  at  Bebek,  on  the 
Bosphorus,  known  as  Robert  College,  organised 
on  the  American  system  and  conducted  by  a 
faculty  which  includes  also  Greek,  Armenian, 
Bulgarian,  and  Turkish  professors,  all  graduates 
of  the  institution,  affords  an  excellent  education, 
for  moderate  fees,  to  the  youth  of  the  East  be- 
longing to  all  nationalities  and  creeds,  and  drawn 
from  every  social  stratum.  The  majority  of  the 
students  are  Greeks,  but  the  Armenian  element 
is  very  largely  represented,  as  is  also  the  Bul- 
garian. The  obligation  of  attending  daily  chapel 
and  the  services  of  the  Protestant  Church  on 
Sundays  is,  however,  an  obstacle  to  the  useful- 


Education  and  Culture        205 

ness  of  the  college  to  the  Turkish  youth,  as, 
under  the  present  fanatical  and  harassing  regime, 
it  would  be  unsafe  for  any  professed  Moslem 
to  become  either  a  resident  or  a  daily  student. 
This  institution  has  accommodation  for  two 
hundred  resident  students,  and  an  attendance  of 
over  three  hundred;  and  since  its  foundation 
forty  years  ago  many  of  its  graduates  have  at- 
tained to  high  positions  in  the  Governments  of 
the  Balkan  principalities,  and  otherwise  distin- 
guished themselves.  All  the  Christian  and  also 
the  Jewish  communities  have,  however,  in  ad- 
dition, their  own  special  sectarian  schools  sup- 
ported by  voluntary  contributions  and  organised 
upon  European  models,  the  majority  of  which 
offer  a  high  standard  of  education  and  are  well 
attended.  For  many  years  past  the  highest 
Turkish  families  have  in  most  cases  sent  their 
sons  to  France  and  England  to  complete  their 
studies,  and  a  considerable  number  of  Turkish 
girls  have  been  educated  at  home  by  European 
governesses, — English,  French,  and  German. 
Schools  for  Turkish  girls  of  the  middle  and 
lower  classes  are  also  on  the  increase,  though 
still  very  inadequate  in  numbers  and  equipment. 
Harem  restraints  also  present  obstacles  to  the 
girls'  continuing  to  attend  school  after  the  age  of 
twelve,  as  they  then  go  abroad  only  when  veiled 
and  escorted  by  a  woman,  either  a  relative  or  an 
attendant  of  mature  years. 


206  Turkish  Life 

Europeans  visiting  Constantinople  are  often 
surprised  at  finding  how  high  a  standard  of  in- 
telligence and  education  prevails  in  the  upper 
circles  of  Turkish  society.  The  generality  of 
men,  in  official  circles  at  least,  speak  French, 
and  many  read,  if  they  do  not  speak,  English; 
while  in  all  large  towns  there  are  quite  as  many 
Turks  who  read  and  write  some  foreign  language 
as  would  be  found  in  a  corresponding  class  in 
this  country.  Of  late  years  the  Press  censorship 
has,  however,  done  its  best  to  put  a  stop  to  the 
progress  of  culture  on  European  lines.  Native 
printing  and  publishing  offices  have  been  com 
pulsorily  closed,  newspapers  and  periodicals 
suppressed,  and  many  of  the  more  prominent 
literary  men  of  the  capital  sent  into  exile.  Any 
foreign  book  or  periodical,  also,  which  may  hap- 
pen to  contain  allusions  to  the  action  of  the  Otto- 
man Government,  or  comments  on  the  religion 
of  Islam,  is  placed  on  the  Turkish  Index  Ex- 
purgatorius,  and  if  discovered  is  seized  at  the 
custom-house.  The  list  of  prohibited  books  in- 
cludes also  all  guide-books  and  encylopaedias  in 
which  mention  is  made  of  the  Sultan,  Tasso's 
Jerusalem  Delivered,  Chateaubriand's  Martyrs, 
Victor  Hugo's  Les  Orientales,  La  Fontaine's 
Fables,  and  the  works  of  Shakespeare,  Dante, 
Voltaire,  Rabelais,  Zola,  and  several  modern 
French  authors.  Modern  French  works  are, 
however,  in  greater  demand  by  the  Turks  than 


Education  and  Culture        207 

any  other  branch  of  literature;  the  booksellers 
of  Pera  are  sufficiently  enterprising;  and  their 
initiated  customers  express  no  surprise  at  finding 
that  the  contents  of  the  volumes  on  their  shelves 
do  not  always  correspond  with  the  titles  on  their 
covers,  Zola's  La  Terre  being  happily  labelled 
La  Culture  Maraichiere,  and  his  Paris,  Traite  de 
la  Langue  Francaise!  For  the  Turkish  official 
considers  that  he  has  done  his  duty  in  examining 
the  titles  of  the  books  which  pass  through  his 
hands,  and  if  they  do  not  happen  to  be  men- 
tioned in  his  list  of  forbidden  works,  that  is  not 
his  affair.  As  all  my  own  volumes  have  re- 
ceived this  honour  at  the  hands  of  the  Turkish 
Censor,  I  was,  on  arriving  at  Constantinople  re- 
cently, somewhat  anxious  while  the  trunk  con- 
taining copies  of  them  was  being  examined. 
The  expectation  of  a  substantial  bakshish  from 
our  dragoman,  however,  added  to  my  simulated 
concern  at  their  handling  of  the  "toilettes" 
covering  the  offending  volumes,  disarmed  the 
watchfulness  of  the  goumronkdji,  and  I  carried 
them  off  in  triumph.  The  customs  officials  are, 
of  course,  themselves  unable  to  judge  of  the 
character  of  foreign  books,  all  of  which,  new  or 
old,  are  indiscriminately  impounded  at  the  fron- 
tiers, and  after  examination  by  the  Censor  may 
— or  may  not — be  ultimately  returned  to  their 
owners. 

Printing  was  introduced  into  Turkey  in  the 


2o8  Turkish  Life 

earlier  half  of  the  eighteenth  century,  but  to  this 
day  the  Turks  prefer  a  beautiful  manuscript  to  a 
printed  book.  They  have,  indeed,  always  culti- 
vated and  esteemed  calligraphy  more  than  Eu- 
ropeans, and  even  more  than  any  other  Orientals, 
except,  perhaps,  the  Persians.  Copying  books, 
as  a  trade,  has  not  even  yet  completely  died  out, 
as  with  us;  religious  books  have  only  of  recent 
years  been  allowed  to  be  printed,  and  the  Koran 
is  still  always  used  in  manuscript.  Letter-writ- 
ing is,  however,  still  an  art  not  understood  by 
the  vulgar.  Many  even  of  those  who  can  read  are 
unable  to  write,  and  the  professional  scribe  still 
sits  at  the  street-corners  ready  to  set  down  in 
literary  Turkish  the  simple  messages  of  his 
customers  to  friends  at  a  distance,  who  may 
possibly  have  recourse  to  the  erudition  of  the 
village  Imam  to  decipher  the  missive.  The  trade 
of  the  seal-engraver,  who,  like  the  scribe,  is  in- 
variably a  Moslem,  remains  as  flourishing  as 
when  the  art  of  writing  was  less  common,  for 
Orientals  generally  consider  a  seal  preferable  to 
a  written  signature,  their  argument  being  that 
any  one  may  imitate  a  man's  handwriting,  but 
no  one  but  himself  can  be  in  possession  of  his 
seal.  But  the  Turks,  in  common  with  Orientals 
generally,  are  not  afflicted  with  the  cacoethes 
scribendi,  neither  social,  intellectual,  nor  com- 
mercial activity  being  so  great  as  to  call  for  a 
frequent  exchange  of  written  communications. 


Education  and  Culture        209 

Even  the  capital  is  without  a  local  postal  service; 
and  it  is  customary  to  send  by  word  of  mouth 
long  messages,  of  which,  even  if  the  general  drift 
is  conveyed,  the  substance  must  get  somewhat 
altered  in  transmission  by  servants  and  em- 
ployees. 

In  the  course  of  the  last  half-century  the  Turks 
have  abandoned  the  ponderous,  grandiloquent, 
and  inflated  style  of  diction  formerly  in  vogue, 
which  constituted  so  great  an  impediment  to 
the  spread  of  education,  in  favour  of  short  sen- 
tences after  the  European  model,  a  literary  revo- 
lution which  has  greatly  benefited  the  nation. 
During  this  time  thousands  of  new  words  have 
been  adopted  or  adapted  from  other  languages 
to  express  the  wants  of  modern  civilisation,  and 
the  language  has  been  thereby  so  much  enriched, 
simplified,  and  modernised,  that  numerous  nov- 
els, scientific  books,  and  periodicals  have  of  late 
appeared,  which  may  be  said  to  be  quite  on 
a  par  with  many  contemporaneous  productions 
in  Western  Europe. 

The  folk-tales  current  among  the  Osmanlis  are 
not  only  very  numerous,  but  are  also  exceed- 
ingly varied  in  character.  No  allusion  is,  how- 
ever, to  be  found  in  them  to  the  original  home 
of  the  Turkish  race  in  Central  Asia.  Yet  such  a 
total  absence  of  any  legends  connected  with  the 
former  habitat  of  the  Turks  is  only  what  one 
might  expect  to  find  on   consideration  of  the 


210  Turkish  Life 

history  of  the  Osmanli  nation.  For  the  original 
small  band  which  invaded  Asia  Minor  in  the 
thirteenth  century  has  for  the  last  six  hundred 
years  been  increased,  first,  by  the  adherence  and 
conversion  of  whole  populations,  and,  secondly, 
by  intermarriage  in  every  succeeding  generation 
with  the  best  blood  both  of  South-eastern  Eu- 
rope and  Asia  Minor.  The  women  belonging  to 
all  the  surrounding  peoples — Kurdish,  Georgian, 
Circassian,  Byzantine,  Armenian,  Slav,  and  even 
Venetian — naturally  brought  with  them  into  the 
harems  of  the  Osmanlis  their  own  folk-lore, 
which,  gradually  falling  under  the  influence  of 
Moslem  ideas,  has  attained  its  present  distinctive 
character.  Many  of  these  tales,  like  those  of  the 
Thousand  and  One  Nights,  deal  with  Peris 
and  Djins,  the  race  of  beings  created  before 
Adam, — and  to  which  his  second  wife,  Lilith,  is 
held  to  have  belonged, — and  with  wicked  ma- 
gicians, enchanted  princesses,  and  valiant  heroes. 
There  are  also  mythical  stories  concerning  the 
magical  exploits  of  King  David  and  King  Solo- 
mon; religious  and  semi-religious  legends  con- 
nected with  the  Prophet  and  the  saints  of  Islam; 
charming  animal  tales,  and  fables  with  a  moral 
application,  and  sarcastic  stories  relating  to  the 
impostures  of  pseudo-saintly  dervishes,  the  ra- 
pacity of  Mollahs  and  the  corruption  of  Kadis, 
besides  comic  and  humorous  anecdotes  innum- 
erable.    A  large  proportion  of  the  last  class  have 


Education  and  Culture        2 1 1 

for  their  hero  Nasr-'d-Din  Hodja,  sometime 
parson-jester  to  the  terrible  Tamerlane  during 
his  invasion  of  Asia  Minor.  Many  of  these  sto- 
ries are,  however,  probably  of  much  greater 
antiquity  than  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  and  be- 
ginning of  the  fifteenth  century,  the  date  assigned 
to  this  famous  Oriental  wit,  who  is  made  to  do 
duty  in  his  own  person  for  our  Wise  Men  of 
Gotham,  Joe  Miller,  and  Sydney  Smith.  The 
character  of  some  of  these  anecdotes  is  proverb- 
ial or  didactic;  the  weaknesses  and  shortcomings 
of  woman  form  the  subject  of  others;  while 
in  yet  another  class  the  honesty  and  integrity 
of  the  Hodja  himself  are  more  than  questionable. 
Running  through  most  of  them,  however,  is  a 
vein  of  the  fine  irony  peculiar  to  Orientals,  and 
in  many  the  point  lies  in  a  subtle  play  of  words 
impossible  to  reproduce  in  another  language. 

Much  of  this  literature  has  still  only  an  oral 
existence,  but  during  the  last  century  a  consid- 
erable portion  has  been  collected  in  book  form, 
and  it  is  said  that  the  volumes  in  which  are 
related  the  exploits  of  the  famous  Hodja  have, 
next  to  the  Koran,  more  readers  than  any  other 
Eastern  literature.  Almost  every  humorous 
anecdote  is,  however,  fathered  upon  this  parson- 
bufToon  who  has  become  a  sort  of  type  per- 
sonifying the  humorous  side  of  the  national 
character.  One  authentic  specimen  which  has 
not,  I  believe,  yet  appeared  in  English  dress  may 


212  Turkish  Life 

here  be  given.  When  the  dreaded  Tamerlane 
had  pitched  his  camp  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Ak 
Shehir,  in  which  Asian  town  the  Hodja  resided, 
the  good  man  consulted  with  his  wife  as  to 
whether  he  should  offer  a  basket  of  figs  or  a 
basket  of  quinces  as  a  propitiatory  gift  to  the 
Mongol  invader.  The  good  wife's  opinion  was 
that  quinces  would  be  the  more  acceptable  pre- 
sent. **  Then  I  shall  take  figs,"  promptly  returned 
the  Hodja.  The  offering  was  duly  presented, 
and  placed  before  the  conqueror.  u  What  is 
this?"  he  demanded  fiercely,  and  taking  up  one 
fig  after  another  he  pelted  with  them  the  Hodja, 
who,  raising  his  hands  to  heaven,  ejaculated 
piously,  "  Praised  be  Allah  that  I  did  not  take 
the  counsel  of  my  wife."  Tamerlane,  struck  by 
the  good  man's  words,  demanded  an  explanation 
of  them.  "My  lord,  before  setting  out  from 
the  city  I  discussed  with  my  wife  whether  I 
should  offer  thee  figs  or  quinces.  She  said 
'Quinces,'  so  I  brought  figs;  and  well  it  was 
for  me — my  head  would  have  been  broken  by 
the  quinces,  hadst  thou  thrown  them  at  me. 
Never  henceforward  will  I  follow  the  counsel  of 
a  woman  ! " 

The  taste  manifested  by  the  Sultan  for  theatri- 
cal and  operatic  representations  already  alluded 
to  is  largely  shared  by  his  subjects,  and  the 
drama  is  very  popular  among  the  Turks  as  well 
as  among  other  nationalities  of  the  Empire.    The 


Education  and  Culture        213 

actors  in  Turkish  theatres  are  usually  Armenians, 
and  the  women's  parts,  out  of  regard  for  Orien- 
tal prejudices,  are  frequently  taken  by  men. 
But  here  again  the  censorship  steps  in,  forbids 
to  the  public  the  recreation  so  freely  indulged 
in  by  the  Padishah,  and  makes  the  progress  of 
dramatic  art  impossible.  A  number  of  plays 
have  been  either  written  in  Turkish  or  adapted 
from  the  works  of  European  dramatic  writers, 
but  every  obstacle  is  placed  in  the  way  of  their 
representation  in  the  capital.  Even  performances 
at  European  theatres  by  foreign  companies  are 
frequently  interfered  with  on  the  most  puerile 
pretexts.  Not  long  ago  the  management  of  a 
Pera  theatre  announced  the  production  of  Mo- 
liere's  L' Avare,  and  the  services  of  an  ex- 
member  of  the  Comedie  Francaise  having  been 
secured  for  the  chief  role,  every  seat  was  quickly 
disposed  of.  The  audience  were  in  their  places, 
and  the  curtain  was  about  to  rise,  when  an  offi- 
cial of  the  police  appeared  and  informed  the 
manager  that  the  performance  had  been  forbid- 
den, and  the  money  taken  must  be  returned  to 
the  public.  The  French  Ambassador  was  at  once 
communicated  with,  and  he  proceeded  without 
delay  to  Yildiz  Kiosk,  where  he  was  informed  to 
his  surprise  that  L' Avare  was  an  adaptation  of  a 
Turkish  comedy  in  which  the  Sultan  was  treated 
with  scant  respect,  and  could  not,  therefore,  be 
allowed  to  be  played  in  Turkey!    The  assurances 


2i4  Turkish  Life 

to  the  contrary  of  the  representative  of  the 
French  Republic  were,  of  course,  courteously 
received;  but  the  fiat  had  gone  forth  and  was  ir- 
revocable, and  the  only  solatium  for  the  wounded 
feelings  of  the  actors  was  a  golden  one  of  three 
or  four  thousand  francs,  of  which  the  Padishah 
requested  their  acceptance.  Still  more  recently 
an  attempt  was  made  to  prevent  the  repetition 
of  an  amateur  performance  by  the  children  of  the 
English  colony  at  Kadikeui  on  the  pretext  that 
the  play — produced,  by  the  way,  under  the  su- 
perintendence of  the  English  chaplain — was  of 
an  immoral  tendency!  This  was,  however 
beyond  the  limits  of  human  patience,  and  the 
representations  made  were  of  such  a  character 
as  speedily  to  obtain  the  removal  of  the  inter- 
diction. 

/  Turkish  music  is  very  primitive  in  character. 
The  airs  are  generally  either  wild  and  plaintive, 
or  sentimental  and  melancholy,  presenting  little 
variety,  and  always  pitched  in  a  minor  key;  and 
the  popular  idea  of  singing  in  the  country  gen- 
erally I  once  heard  not  inaptly  described  as 
"  pirouetting  around  a  single  note."  The  repe- 
tition of  the  Turkish  words  "  Aman,  Aman  !  ' ' 
— which  may  be  translated  as  "Oh,  dear!"  or 
"  Have  pity!  " — appears  sufficient  to  express  the 
sentimental  feelings  of  the  lower  classes  of  all 
races,  and  the  muleteer  on  the  road,  the  fisher- 
man in  his  boat,  or  the  town  'prentice  taking 


Education  and  Culture        215 

his  kaif  at  a  coffee-house  by  the  seashore  will, 
for  hours  together,  make  nasal  excursions  up 
and  down  the  scale  from  the  keynote  on  which 
he  enunciates  his  "Aman,  Aman!"  Military 
bands  and  barrel-organs  have,  however,  intro- 
duced European  music,  chiefly  French  and 
Italian,  and  La  Fille  de  Madame  Angot  has  had, 
perhaps,  a  greater  vogue  in  Turkey  than  even  in 
her  native  land. 

The  musical  instruments  in  ordinary  use  among 
the  populace  are  the  rebeck,  or  lute,  the  kanoun, 
a  kind  of  zither,  the  reed  flute,  and  the  small 
hemispherical  drum.  But  the  favourite  instru- 
ment of  the  Oriental  rustic  generally  is  the  bag- 
pipe—  not  the  complicated  instrument,  be  it 
understood,  of  the  Scottish  highlanders,  but  a 
much  more  primitive  one,  made  from  the  skin 
of  a  sheep  fitted  with  a  mouthpiece  and  a  single 
reed  pipe,  by  means  of  which  the  notes  are  pro- 
duced. The  inflated  skin  is  held  against  the 
chest  of  the  player,  who  moves  his  fingers  over 
the  holes,  producing  sounds  discordant  enough 
to  Western  ears,  but  pleasing  in  the  extreme  to 
the  unsophisticated  Turk,  Arab,  Bulgarian,  or 
Armenian,  especially  when  accompanied,  as  is 
generally  the  case,  by  the  equally  primitive  dou- 
bana,  or  native  drum. 


CHAPTER   X 

THE    ALBANIAN    HIGHLANDERS 

UPPER,  or  Northern,  Albania,  as  its  native 
name  of  Shiperi  ("  The  Land  of  Rocks") 
signifies,  is  one  of  the  most  mountainous  re- 
gions in  the  Ottoman  Empire.  The  principal 
chain  runs  north  and  south  parallel  with  the 
Adriatic,  and  from  it  jut  many  spurs  as  lofty  as 
the  main  range,  which  ramify  in  every  direction, 
so  that  almost  the  whole  surface  of  the  country 
is  covered  with  rugged  hills  and  deep  valleys. 
Even  the  coast  is  grandly  mountainous,  the  spurs 
there  often  terminating  in  abrupt  precipices,  the 
sides  of  which  are  eternally  beaten  by  the  lash- 
ing waves.  Almost  every  variety  of  climate  is 
found  within  the  limits  of  Albania.  In  the 
south,  and  near  the  sea,  the  temperature  is  as 
mild  as  at  Naples,  and  oranges,  citrons,  grapes, 
pomegranates,  figs,  and  other  fruits  grow  in 
abundance.  But  the  cold  increases  with  the 
distance  from  the  coast,  and  only  twenty  miles 
away  the  snowfalls  are  heavy  and  the  frosts 
severe.  The  higher  and  more  northern  summits 
216 


The  Albanian  Highlanders    217 

are  clad  in  perpetual  snow;  but  at  lower  eleva- 
tions stretch  vast  forests  of  pine  and  other  trees, 
and  rich  pasturages,  over  which  the  sheep  and 
cattle  roam  in  summer.  The  land  is  cultivated 
to  any  considerable  extent  only  in  the  south, 
where  the  climate  is  more  suited  to  the  produc- 
tion of  crops  and  the  character  of  the  people  to 
the  pursuit  of  agriculture.  For  the  Gheg,  or  Mos- 
lem Albanian,  has,  generally  speaking,  no  great 
fondness  for  farmwork,  which  he  usually  leaves 
to  the  women,  children,  and  old  men;  and  when 
he  does  not  follow  the  calling  of  soldier  or 
trader,  prefers  wood-cutting,  vine-dressing,  or, 
still  better,  tending  sheep  on  the  mountains, 
a  pursuit  in  which  laziness  is  occasionally  and 
agreeably  diversified  with  peril. 

The  Albanian  nationality  is  composed  of  sev- 
eral distinct  tribes  —  Tosks,  Ghegs,  Mirdites, 
Khams,  and  Liaps — each  of  which  is  subdivided 
into  a  number  of  clans.  Though,  as  a  rule,  the 
same  splendid  physical  type  is  observable  among 
the  Albanians  generally,  they  vary  somewhat  ac- 
cording to  the  degree  of  admixture  with  neigh- 
bouring races,  Slav  in  the  North,  and  in  the 
South  Greek.  Proud,  independent,  and  often 
arrogant  in  bearing  and  manner,  the  dignity  of 
their  personal  appearance  is  not  a  little  enhanced 
by  the  picturesque  and  elaborately  decorated  na- 
tional costume,  and  by  their  custom  of  wearing 
under  all  circumstances  a  waist-belt  bristling  with 


2i8  Turkish  Life 

arms  —  inlaid  pistols,  daggers,  and  yataghans. 
Each  section  of  the  nation  has  also  its  own 
traditional  laws  and  usages,  and  by  these  alone 
is  their  social  life  regulated.  Their  internal  gov- 
ernment is  a  species  of  aristocratic  republic,  all 
matters  affecting  the  community  being  decided 
in  council  by  the  chiefs,  the  elders,  and  other 
hereditary  functionaries.  Notwithstanding  that 
the  Albanians  were  brought  under  Turkish  rule 
five  hundred  years  ago,  they  have  never  consid- 
ered themselves  a  conquered  race,  and  their  old 
feudal  social  system,  which  they  still  in  some 
degree  retain,  aided  by  the  nature  of  their  coun- 
try, has  occasionally  made  it  possible  for  the 
chieftains  to  throw  off  for  the  time  being  the 
authority  of  the  Porte.  Under  existing  political 
conditions  profession  of  the  creed  of  Islam  cer- 
tainly offers  a  favourable  field  of  action  for  the 
martial  and  predatory  instincts  of  the  Albanian 
highlander;  for  though  he  objects  to  ordinary 
conscription,  he  gladly  follows  the  standard  of 
his  own  chieftain  to  fight  the  battles  of  the 
Sultan  either  as  a  regular  or  a  Bashibazouk. 
When  on  the  march  to  the  seat  of  war,  a  com- 
pany of  Albanians  is  a  terrible  scourge  to  the 
country  it  passes  through,  leaving  nothing  be- 
hind that  it  can  possibly  carry  away  with  it. 
As  a  soldier  the  Albanian  is  valued  for  his  rapid- 
ity of  motion,  ability  as  a  marksman,  careless- 
ness of  danger,  and  uncomplaining  endurance  of 


The  Albanian  Highlanders    219 

privation.  Raised  from  childhood  to  the  use  of 
arms,  his  gun  is  his  most  cherished  possession, 
and  with  it  he  seldom  fails  to  supply  his  daily 
wants  when  on  the  march  or  in  camp. 

Though  speaking  the  same  language  and  cher- 
ishing the  same  traditions  and  national  aspira- 
tions, the  Albanians  are  at  the  present  day,  in 
matters  of  religious  belief,  divided  by  three 
creeds,  the  Moslem,  Orthodox  Greek,  and  Roman 
Catholic.  The  Moslems  constitute  about  half 
the  population,  and  of  the  remaining  half  the 
majority  follow  the  rites  of  the  Eastern  Church. 
The  Mirdites  and  some  tribes  of  Ghegs  on  the 
coast  adopted  the  Roman  Catholic  faith  about 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  and  follow 
the  Latin  rite  with  some  Oriental  differences,  as, 
for  instance  the  administration  of  the  Sacrament, 
in  both  kinds  to  the  laity.  Previous  to  the 
Turkish  Conquest  the  Albanians  were  all  mem- 
bers of  the  Greek  Orthodox  Church.  But  after 
that  event  many  chieftains,  with  their  tribesmen, 
voluntarily  embraced  Islam  for  the  sake  of  the 
material  advantages  which  resulted  from  such  a 
change  of  creed.  Perversion,  however,  became 
more  general  in  the  reign  of  Sultan  Murad  II., 
who,  incensed  by  the  apostasy  from  Islam  of 
the  famous  Albanian  hero  Scanderbeg,  converted 
all  the  churches  in  Epirus  into  mosques,  and 
commanded  its  inhabitants,  on  pain  of  death,  to 
confess  that  "  there  is  no  God  but  God,  and 


220  Turkish  Life 

Mohammed  is  His  Prophet."  Until  the  begin- 
ning of  last  century  much  of  the  land  in  Lower 
Albania  had  remained  in  the  possession  of  its 
hereditary  Christian  proprietors,  and  many  semi- 
independent  villages  still  existed  in  various  local- 
ities. Usurped,  however,  by  the  three  methods 
of  force,  fraud,  and  nominal  compensation  by  the 
despot  Ali  Pasha,  these  lands,  passing  on  his 
downfall  to  the  Crown,  were  never  regained 
by  their  former  owners;  and  at  the  present  day 
the  large  landowners  throughout  Albania  are 
Moslems,  who  exercise  a  despotic  and  unlim- 
ited sway  over  the  Christian  peasants  on  their 
estates. 

Differences  in  religious  belief,  however,  form, 
generally  speaking,  in  Albania  no  ban  to  social 
intercourse.  Christian  men  wed  Moslem  maids, 
and  vice  versa;  the  sons  being  brought  up  in  the 
faith  of  their  father,  and  the  daughters  in  that  of 
the  mother.  Moslems  revere  the  Virgin  Mary 
and  the  Christian  saints,  and  make  pilgrimages 
to  their  shrines.  Christians  reciprocally  resort 
to  the  tombs  of  Moslem  saints  for  the  cure  of  ail- 
ments, or  in  fulfilment  of  vows;  while  Christians 
and  Moslems  alike  mingle  with  their  culture-be- 
liefs ancient  pagan  rites  and  superstitious  usages 
which  both  creeds  have  proved  powerless  to 
eradicate.  The  Festival  of  Our  Lady  of  Scutari 
is  honoured  equally  by  Christians  and  Moslems; 
and  the  scene  on  this  day  in  the  great  square 


The  Albanian  Highlanders    221 

building,  which  with  its  bare  walls  and  absence 
of  ornament  bears  little  resemblance  to  a  Romish 
Church,  is  most  striking  and  strange.  The  Mass 
is  listened  to  by  a  congregation  whose  waist- 
belts  are  perfect  arsenals  of  small-arms,  pis- 
tols, yataghans,  and  daggers  of  every  shape 
and  pattern.  There  are  wild-looking,  fiercely 
moustachioed  Papist  highlanders,  white-kilted 
Mohammedans,  chieftains  blazing  with  gold  em- 
broidery, and  milder  citizens  in  more  homely 
garb,  all  assembled  in  honour  of  the  Madonna, 
at  whose  shrine  the  ancestors  of  all  had  wor- 
shipped. Yet,  notwithstanding  their  friendly 
participation  in  the  religious  ceremonies  of  their 
neighbours,  the  Albanians  are  not  less  tenacious 
of  their  own  honour  than  they  are  of  that  of  the 
creed  they  profess,  any  insult  offered  to  a  Christ- 
ian church  being  promptly  retaliated  upon  a 
mosque,  and  vice  versa. 

Tribal  and  family  pride  may  be  said  to  be 
the  leading  feature  of  Albanian  character;  and 
although  the  Skipetar  chieftains  have  neither 
genealogical  charts  nor  armorial  bearings,  matri- 
monial alliances  between  their  families  are  ar- 
ranged with  rigid  regard  to  rank  and  precedence. 
The  wives  and  mothers  of  the  beys,  like  well-born 
women  generally,  are  intimately  acquainted  with 
the  genealogies  of  all  the  neighbouring  families, 
and  the  preliminaries  of  betrothal  are  usually  set- 
tled by  them  in  the  harem  before  formal  proposals 


222  Turkish  Life 

are  made  to  the  heads  of  the  respective  house- 
holds, or  the  couple  themselves.  Exogamy  is 
the  general  rule  in  the  affairs  of  marriage;  and 
by  the  Roman  Catholic  Mirdite  chieftains  it  is 
observed  to  the  extent  of  occasionally  carrying 
off  by  force  a  woman  from  one  of  the  neigh- 
bouring Moslem  tribes.  The  wives  of  many 
of  the  principal  inhabitants  of  Orosh  have  been 
acquired  in  this  way,  and,  far  from  resenting 
or  being  ashamed  of  the  circumstance,  they  are, 
on  the  contrary,  proud  of  it,  and  their  relatives 
accept  the  situation  on  payment  of  the  usual 
dowry. 

From  the  age  of  twelve  to  the  time  of  their 
marriage,  which  generally  takes  place  before 
they  are  sixteen,  the  girls  of  the  towns,  both 
Christian  and  Moslem,  are  kept  strictly  secluded 
from  the  outer  world.  The  customs  of  the  Christ- 
ians are,  indeed,  in  this  respect  the  more  rigid; 
for  their  daughters  are  not,  during  this  interval, 
allowed  to  present  themselves  before  visitors, 
even  of  their  own  sex.  The  highest  praise  that 
can  be  given  to  an  Albanian  maiden  is  conveyed 
in  the  phrase,  "The  sun  has  never  seen  her." 
The  peasant  and  country  girls,  however,  both 
of  the  mountains  and  the  plains,  enjoy,  as  we 
have  seen,  much  greater  freedom.  Save  among 
the  Mirdites,  social  intercourse  with  members 
of  the  other  sex  is  not  denied  to  them;  and,  like 
the  Greek  and  Vlach   maidens,  they  tend   the 


The  Albanian  Highlanders    223 

flocks  on  the  hills,  fetch  water  from  the  fountain, 
and  lead  generally  a  life  of  healthy  industry. 

Social  morality  is  pushed  to  its  extremest  limit 
by  these  Mirdite  mountaineers.  Though  their 
women  enjoy,  in  many  respects,  the  greatest 
freedom,  an  unmarried  girl  cannot,  out  of  doors, 
speak  to  a  man  not  a  relative  without  risking 
the  loss  of  her  reputation,  a  calamity  which  few 
would  care  to  survive.  The  Albanian  code  of 
honour  makes  it  impossible  for  a  man  to  raise  his 
hand  against  a  woman,  be  she  armed  or  not. 
The  sacredness  attached  to  their  persons  extends 
also  to  those  whom  they  take  under  their  protec- 
tion. Escorted  by  a  girl  only,  travellers  may 
pass  with  safety  through  the  wildest  parts  of  the 
country;  and  a  man  may  cross  without  fear  the 
lands  of  one  with  whom  he  is  at  feud,  if  he  have 
the  safe-conduct  of  a  woman  belonging  to  his 
enemy's  family.  To  such  an  extent,  indeed,  is 
respect  for  women  carried  by  the  Albanians,  that 
it  is  contrary  to  their  notions  of  propriety  even  to 
make  them  the  subject  of  jokes  or  humorous 
satires,  the  slightest  insult  or  annoyance  offered 
to  a  maiden  invariably  resulting  in  bitter  feuds 
between  families,  or  fierce  battles  between  tribes. 

Vendettas,  or  blood-feuds,  are,  indeed,  very 
common  among  the  Albanians.  Though  often 
originating  in  some  trifling  cause,  they  result  in 
great  loss  of  life,  and  are  handed  down  from 
generation  to  generation.    Sometimes  these  feuds 


224  Turkish  Life 

exist  between  individuals  only;  at  others,  whole 
villages  or  clans  are  concerned.  In  maintaining 
them,  however,  certain  traditional  rules  are  punc- 
tiliously adhered  to;  and  occasionally  those 
engaged  in  these  feuds,  finding  the  state  of  con- 
tinued hostility  irksome,  agree  to  observe  a 
bessa,  or  truce,  for  a  stated  period.  When  entire 
clans  take  part  in  a  feud,  each  keeps  strictly  to 
its  own  wells  or  fountains,  its  public  ovens,  and 
its  markets.  Such  dissensions,  however,  rarely 
interrupt  the  usual  occupations  of  a  district,  the 
land  being  tilled  and  the  flocks  pastured  as  usual 
in  the  daytime,  the  combatants  assembling  in 
the  evening  for  the  fray  on  the  common  adjoin- 
ing some  neighbouring  town  or  village.  When 
a  few  men  have  bitten  the  dust,  the  rest  with- 
draw, and  the  battle  is  over  for  the  time.  Though 
women  are  not  the  principals  in  these  vendettas, 
it  is  no  uncommon  thing  for  them  to  take  part  in 
the  bloody  frays  to  which  they  give  rise,  and  for 
which  their  custom  of  carrying  arms  makes  them 
always  ready.  It  is  said,  however,  that  even 
under  such  circumstances  the  men  refrain,  as  far 
as  possible,  from  striking  or  wounding  their 
female  opponents. 

The  dwellings  of  the  Albanians  are  quite  in 
keeping  with  their  character  and  mode  of  life. 
Even  at  Ioannina,  where  social  customs  approxi- 
mate more  closely  to  those  of  the  Greeks,  the 
houses  have  a  gloomy  appearance  from  without, 


The  Albanian  Highlanders    225 

being  shut  in  by  ponderous  courtyard  gates,  and 
having  no  windows  to  the  street  on  the  ground 
floor.  Like  the  generality  of  Oriental  houses, 
they  are  of  two  stories  only — the  upper,  which 
contains  the  living-rooms  of  the  family,  being 
reached  by  an  outside  staircase  of  wood,  under 
cover  of  the  broad  pent  of  the  tiled  roof  project- 
ing over  the  open  landing,  or  gallery,  on  which 
all  the  rooms  open.  The  furniture  of  each  apart- 
ment consists  chiefly  of  a  low  divan  with  very 
hard  cushions,  a  few  chairs,  and  a  mirror.  There 
are  no  bedsteads,  the  mattresses  and  coverlets 
which  are  spread  on  the  divans  at  night  being  in 
the  daytime  piled  in  the  great  wall-cupboards. 
The  walls  are  limewashed,  and  adorned  for  the 
most  part  only  with  the  rich  assortment  of  arms 
of  all  kinds  which  form  the  pride  of  the  family. 
In  the  mountain  districts  the  houses  of  the  chief- 
tains are  perfect  fortresses,  being  surrounded  by 
high  walls  pierced  with  loopholes  for  musketry. 
Only  in  times  of  open  hostility,  however,  is  it 
necessary  to  take  any  precautions  against  possi- 
ble foes,  for  an  Albanian's  notion  of  honour  does 
not  allow  him  to  slay  a  man  in  his  own  house, 
deadly  as  may  be  his  feud  with  him.  The  vil- 
lages of  these  districts  are  generally  remote  from 
each  other,  perched  in  high  and  seemingly  inac- 
cessible situations.  Each  has,  however,  its  green, 
in  one  corner  of  which  is  the  paved  threshing- 
floor,  where  the  grain  is  trodden  out  by  horses. 


226  Turkish  Life 

A  considerable  number  of  Albanians,  finding 
in  their  own  country  insufficient  scope  for  their 
energies,  emigrate  to  other  parts  of  the  Empire 
in  search  of  employment.  Some  attend  the 
Greek  and  Turkish  educational  establishments, 
and  qualify  as  doctors,  lawyers,  and  schoolmas- 
ters. Many  attain  high  rank  in  the  Government 
service  and  the  army,  while  the  lower  classes 
generally  work  as  masons,  carters,  butchers, 
dairymen,  etc.  The  Mohammedans,  however, 
prefer  as  a  rule  either  military  service,  or  situa- 
tions as  guards  or  cavasses,  for  which  a  good 
presence  but  no  special  training  is  required. 
The  wives  and  children  seldom  accompany  the 
head  of  the  household  to  his  foreign  abode,  but 
remain  to  look  after  the  family  interests  in  the 
ancestral  home,  contenting  themselves  with  an 
occasional  visit  from  the  bread-winner. 

Infant  betrothal  is  very  common  among  the 
Albanians,  this  usage  being  in  the  middle  and 
lower  classes  intended  to  prevent  the  young  men 
marrying  in  the  towns  to  which  they  may  resort 
for  employment,  and  thus  forming  connections 
and  interests  unconnected  with  those  of  the 
family  generally.  A  refusal  on  the  part  of  a 
fiance  to  fulfil  an  engagement  thus  made  for  him 
by  his  parents  would  inevitably  result,  not  only 
in  a  vendetta  with  the  relatives  of  the  discarded 
bride,  but  in  social  ostracism,  and  such  cases  are, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  extremely  rare.     As  soon  as 


MOHAMMEDAN  ALBANIANS  OF  DIBREH 


The  Albanian  Highlanders    227 

a  young  Albanian  has  amassed  sufficient  money 
to  enable  him  to  do  so,  he  returns  home  and 
marries  the  girl  chosen  for  him  by  his  parents,  in 
order  to  prove  himself  a  respectable  member  of 
society.  After  a  brief  sojourn  in  the  bosom  of 
his  family,  he  returns  to  his  employment,  leaving 
his  young  wife  in  charge  of  his  parents;  for 
here,  as  well  as  elsewhere  in  Turkey,  patriarchal 
customs  still  survive,  and  all  the  sons  bring  home 
their  brides  to  the  paternal  roof,  there  to  remain 
in  subjection  to  the  parents-in-law  until  they 
shall  themselves  become  heads  of  families. 

Solidarity  is  a  distinguishing  trait  of  the  Al- 
banian abroad.  All  Skipetars  are  "brothers"; 
and  those  settled  in  distant  towns  will,  when 
necessary,  assist  pecuniarily  or  even  maintain 
new-comers  until  they  obtain  profitable  employ- 
ment. Gay,  reckless,  and  improvident,  the  Al- 
banian is  generally  short  of  money,  and  usually 
carries  his  fortune  on  his  person  in  the  shape  of 
richly  embroidered  garments  and  valuable  arms. 
Should  fortune  be  adverse,  and  the  generosity  of 
his  friends  in  time  be  exhausted,  he  will  first  sell 
his  small  arsenal  of  pistols  and  daggers,  and  per- 
haps his  embroidered  vest  and  jacket  may  follow 
suit.  But  the  son  of  the  mountains,  even  when 
reduced  to  the  condition  of  a  tattered  chiplak, 
loses  nothing  of  his  characteristic  swagger  and 
self-assurance.  And  when  things  are  at  the 
worst  with  him,  he  not  infrequently  mends  them 


228  Turkish  Life 

by  taking  to  the  road  and  replenishing  his  purse 
from  that  of  some  one  less  at  odds  with  fortune. 
Gheg  and  Tosk  have  about  an  equal  reputation 
for  bravery  as  well  as  for  rapacity,  but  for  fidelity 
and  honourable  dealing  the  Moslem  Gheg  has 
the  more  enviable  reputation.  If  short  of  cash, 
or  merely  for  the  sake  of  adventure,  he  certainly 
has  no  hesitation  about  turning  brigand,  and  if 
any  traveller  on  the  highroad  has  the  temerity 
to  disregard  his  summons  of  Des  dour  ("Stand 
and  deliver!")  he  thinks  nothing  of  cutting  his 
throat  or  despatching  him  with  a  pistol-shot.  If, 
however,  a  Gheg  enters  your  employment,  or  is 
indebted  to  you  for  a  service,  however  small,  all 
his  alarming  characteristics  retire  into  the  back- 
ground, and  he  becomes  the  most  faithful  of 
friends  and  servants.  These  qualities  of  the 
Gheg  are  so  generally  recognised  that  European 
consuls,  merchants,  and  others,  who  need  re- 
tainers on  whose  bravery  and  fidelity  they  can 
rely,  are  glad  to  secure  their  services,  in  prefer- 
ence to  those  of  men  of  any  other  nationality,  for 
the  post  oicavass — a  combination  of  armed  guard, 
orderly,  and  doorkeeper.  The  code  of  honour 
of  an  Albanian  does  not,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
allow  of  his  betraying  a  trust  reposed  in  him; 
and  of  his  moral  attitude  in  this  respect  the  fol- 
lowing little  incident,  related  in  my  hearing  at 
Salonica,  offers  a  striking  illustration:  The  tithe 
farmer  of  a  district  in  Epirus  had  as  his  body- 


The  Albanian  Highlanders    229 

servant  an  ex-brigand,  who  for  years  accom- 
panied him  on  his  journeys  about  the  country. 
On  one  occasion,  when  they  were  in  a  remote 
village,  the  Albanian  presented  himself  before  his 
master,  and,  after  saluting  him  politely  in  native 
fashion,  informed  him  that  he  desired  then  and 
there  to  leave  his  service.  The  collector,  much 
surprised,  asked  the  reason  for  this  sudden  and 
inconvenient  proceeding.  "Well,"  replied  the 
Arnaut,  "I  am  leaving  you,  EfTendi,  because  I 
have  agreed  to  join  some  other  fellows  who  pro- 
pose to  rob  you  on  the  road.  To  do  this  while  I 
eat  your  bread  and  salt  would  be  dishonourable, 
so  I  leave  you.  Take  what  precautions  you  like, 
for  it  is  now  fair  play  between  us."  Thus  fore- 
warned, the  EfTendi  provided  himself  with  a 
strong  escort,  and  the  attack  of  the  brigands, 
who  duly  waylaid  him  on  the  road,  was  success- 
fully repulsed. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  Albanians  are  "with- 
out a  literature,  without  art,  and  almost  without 
a  history."  Their  language,  which  is  difficult 
to  learn  and  difficult  to  pronounce,  is  a  com- 
plete mosaic  of  fragments  borrowed  from  many 
sources,  though  the  native  element  naturally  pre- 
dominates. Greek  and  Turkish  words  abound, 
and  many  of  Slav  and  Latin  origin  have  become 
part  of  the  vernacular.  The  language  of  the  Skip- 
etars  is  also  divided  between  the  dialects  spoken 
respectively  by  the  Tosks,  Ghegs,  and  Khams, 


230  Turkish  Life 

though  there  is  no  well-defined  line  of  demarca- 
tion between  them.  The  purest  Albanian  is  said 
to  be  spoken  in  Elbassan,  the  inhabitants  of  which 
town — according  to  the  native  saying,  "Go  to 
Stamboul  for  a  Turk,  to  Elbassan  for  a  Skipe  " — 
are  looked  upon  as  representative  Albanians. 
The  total  neglect  of  the  mother  tongue  has  been 
due  chiefly  to  the  profession  of  three  distinct 
creeds,  Turkish  alone  being  taught  in  the  Moslem 
schools,  Italian  in  the  Roman  Catholic,  and  Greek 
in  those  of  the  Orthodox  Christians.  The  only 
section  of  the  nation  that  can  boast  any  degree 
of  culture  are  the  Albanians  of  Epirus,  more  es- 
pecially those  professing  Christianity,  who,  owing 
to  their  intercourse  with  the  numerous  Greek 
communities  in  this  province,  and  their  adoption 
of  late  years  of  Greek  methods  of  education,  are 
much  more  civilised  and  enlightened  than  either 
their  Moslem  or  Roman  Catholic  compatriots. 

Although  the  Albanians  cannot  be  called  a 
musical  people,  singing  is  the  favourite  pastime 
of  both  sexes.  Their  airs  have  but  little  variety, 
being  for  the  most  part  monotonous  recitations, 
and  the  singer's  merit  depends  upon  his  success 
in  rivalling  the  violin,  mandolin,  or  flute,  by 
which  his  song  is  accompanied,  in  the  prolonga- 
tion of  the  final  note.  The  songs  are  generally 
long  ballads,  recounting  the  victories  of  the  tribe, 
the  doughty  deeds  of  famous  ancestors,  or  the 
exploits  of  some  national  hero,  such  as  Skander- 


The  Albanian  Highlanders    231 

beg  or  his  father,  George  Castriot.  For  in  the 
songs  of  the  Skipetars,  as  in  those  of  the  Greeks, 
the  later  history  of  the  country  is  preserved,  and 
in  those  of  the  Ghegs,  more  particularly,  may 
be  found  the  record  of  how  they  obstinately  re- 
sisted, yard  by  yard,  the  Turkish  advance  into 
their  mountains,  and  were  only  subdued  at  last  by 
the  overwhelming  numbers  and  equal  pertinac- 
ity of  the  foe.  The  record,  too,  of  civil  broils, 
and  of  every  insurrection — and  they  have  been 
many — has  thus  from  1572  downwards  been 
orally  transmitted  from  generation  to  generation, 
keeping  alive  in  the  national  memory  the  exploits 
of  heroic  ancestors,  and  inciting  to  similar  deeds 
of  daring. 

Survivals  of  ancient  nature-worship,  which 
neither  Christianity  nor  Islam  has  succeeded  in 
eliminating,  may  be  found  in  the  form  of  the 
oaths  still  in  use  in  the  Albanian  highlands. 
Contact  with  the  outer  world  has  taught  the 
dwellers  in  towns  to  call  indiscriminately  upon 
the  Virgin  and  saints,  or  Allah  and  Mohammed, 
as  witnesses  to  their  word.  But  the  oaths  of 
the  pastoral  Skipetar  are  still  "By  sky  and 
earth,"  "By  sun  and  moon,"  "By  mountain 
and  plain."  The  curious  ceremony  of  taking 
the  "oath  of  the  stone,"  which  is  said  to  have 
been  a  Pelasgian  custom,  is  also  made  use  of  by 
the  Albanian  highlanders  generally,  and  is  sworn 
by  the  elders  of  the  phars,  or  clans,  when  settling 


232  Turkish  Life 

questions  of  public  importance,  such  as  those 
concerning  disputed  boundaries  of  village  lands, 
or  other  communal  matters.  This  oath,  in  an- 
other form,  also  enters  into  every-day  speech. 
When  a  Gheg  wishes  to  emphasise  what  he 
is  saying,  he  takes  up  or  points  to  the  nearest 
stone  with  the  words,  "By  the  weight  of  this 
stone." 

The  numerous  "bogies"  of  all  kinds  with 
which  the  Albanian  women  terrify,  themselves 
and  their  children  appear  to  be,  like  those  of 
their  Greek  and  Bulgarian  neighbours,  but  per- 
sonifications of  the  powers  of  nature.  Of  these 
imaginary  beings  some  belong  exclusively  to 
the  "  Land  of  Rocks,"  while  others  may  also  be 
found  among  the  superstitions  of  Slavs,  Greeks, 
and  Turks.  The  Vilas  seem  to  approach  most 
nearly  to  the  fairies  of  the  West,  though,  like  the 
Nereids  of  the  Greeks,  they  are  of  the  full  stature 
of  mortals.  As  with  our  fairies,  too,  it  is  unlucky 
to  mention  them  by  name,  and  they  are  generally 
referred  to  by  such  terms  as  "Those  Outside," 
"The  Happy  Ones,"  "The  Brides  of  May."  As 
a  rule  they  are  harmless,  if  not  offended,  and 
merely  amuse  themselves  with  elfish  tricks. 
Omens  and  auguries,  too,  both  good  and  evil, 
are  drawn  from  all  the  trifling  occurrences  of 
daily  life,  as  well  as  from  observation  of  the 
phenomena  of  nature,  besides  being  sought  for 
in  the  bones  and  entrails  of  slaughtered  sheep, 


The  Albanian  Highlanders    233 

and  the  flight  of  birds.  And  in  addition  to  the 
every-day  observances  with  respect  to  auspicious 
and  inauspicious  actions  and  events,  so  many  are 
attached  to  special  seasons  and  days  of  the  year 
as  to  form  quite  a  calendar  of  superstitions. 


CHAPTER  XI 
THE  MACEDONIAN  NATIONALITIES 

THE  Christians  of  Macedonia,  whose  mutual 
jealousies  and  political  and  ecclesiastical 
intrigues,  added  to  their  general  desire  for  eman- 
cipation from  Ottoman  rule,  have  during  the  last 
quarter  of  a  century  kept  that  province  in  a  state 
of  ferment,  belong  to  four  different  nationalities, 
Bulgarian,  Servian,  Greek,  and  Vlach,  or  Wal- 
lachian.  In  no  part  of  Turkey  is  it  an  easy  task 
to  draw  a  hard-and-fast  line  between  the  various 
races  one  comes  into  contact  with,  and  this  dif- 
ficulty is  perhaps  greater  in  Macedonia  than 
elsewhere.  A  Greek-speaking  community  may 
prove  to  be  Wallachian,  Albanian,  or  even  Bul- 
garian, and  the  inhabitants  of  a  Slav-speaking 
village  may  claim  to  be  of  Greek  origin.  As  a 
general  rule,  the  Slav  language  predominates  in 
the  villages  throughout  the  greater  part  of  Cen- 
tral Macedonia,  while  Greek  is  more  frequently 
heard  in  the  towns.  But  all  these  various  eth- 
nical elements  are,  in  many  country  districts  of 
Macedonia,  as  well  as  in  the  towns,  so  hopelessly 
234 


The  Macedonian  Nationalities  235 

fused  and  intermingled  that  it  will  be  a  difficult 
matter,  if  the  time  should  ever  come  for  the 
Turks  to  depart  "bag  and  baggage,"  to  divide 
this  province  equitably  among  the  neighbouring 
States  which,  in  virtue  of  racial  kinship  with  one 
section  or  another  of  its  inhabitants,  respectively 
lay  claim  to  its  possession.  Take,  for  instance, 
the  state  of  affairs  in  Djoumaya,  a  little  town  be- 
tween Salonica  and  Serres,  with  a  population 
of  some  six  thousand  souls,  out  of  which  per- 
haps five  thousand  are  Christian  and  the  rest 
Mohammedan.  The  former  community  is  chiefly 
made  up  of  Bulgarians  and  Vlachs,  all  calling 
themselves  Greek,  supporting  several  Greek 
schools  attended  by  pupils  of  both  sexes,  and 
owning  allegiance  to  the  Orthodox  Greek  Church. 
The  Bulgarian  Exarch's  propaganda,  however, 
which  is  working  hard  to  gain  over  this  district, 
has  established  here  a  school — but  so  far  without 
pupils,  save  a  score  or  so  imported  from  other 
districts. 

The  charmingly  picturesque  town  of  Serres 
forms  also  a  sphere  for  all  the  various  political 
and  religious  propaganda,  Servian,  Roumanian, 
and  Greek,  which,  during  the  last  quarter  of  a 
century,  have  striven  to  establish  claims  to  the 
possession  of  Macedonia,  each  and  all  of  them 
intent  on  persuading  the  inhabitants  of  the  dis- 
trict that  they  belong  to  one  or  other  of  these 
nationalities.     To  put  the  position  briefly,  each 


236  Turkish  Life 

of  these  nationalities  is  pitted  against  the  rest, 
and  all  are  equally  antagonistic  to  their  common 
tyrant,  the  Turk,  against  whom,  however,  their 
mutual  jealousies  will  not  now,  any  more  than 
at  the  period  of  the  Ottoman  conquest,  allow 
them  to  combine. 

Though  living  in  close  contact  with  each  other, 
and  with  the  Turks  and  other  Moslems  of  the 
country,  each  of  these  Christian  nationalities  has 
its  own  separate  existence,  its  separate  internal 
government,  churches,  customs,  costume,  and 
language;  and  in  the  towns,  its  separate  ma- 
hallah,  or  quarter,  outside  of  which  the  houses 
of  its  members  are  seldom  found.  The  Porte, 
as  already  mentioned,  exercises  no  jurisdiction  in 
the  internal  affairs  of  its  Christian  subjects,  which 
are  regulated  in  each  diocese  by  a  council  of  the 
chief  inhabitants,  presided  over  by  the  Bishop  or 
Archbishop,  who  also  acts  as  intermediary  be- 
tween their  flocks  and  the  Turkish  civil  authori- 
ties when  they  have  any  disagreement  with 
Moslems. 

The  typical  Greek  is  a  dweller  in  towns,  and 
is,  as  a  rule,  only  found  in  Macedonia  as  a  tiller 
of  the  soil  in  the  eastern  districts  of  that  pro- 
vince. There  are  comparatively  few  Greek 
country  gentlemen  or  large  landowners,  and  the 
unsettled  state  of  the  country  makes  it  difficult 
for  them  to  reside  on  their  estates,  which,  like 
those  of  the  Turkish  Beys,  are  generally  man- 


The  Macedonian  Nationalities  237 

aged  by  a  bailiff,  and  only  visited  occasionally 
by  their  owners.  The  majority  of  these  gentle- 
men have  been  educated  either  at  Athens  or  in 
France,  Switzerland,  or  Germany,  where  they 
have  made  themselves  acquainted  with  the  new- 
est methods  of  agriculture ;  and  their  estates  are 
consequently  much  better  cultivated  and  their 
peasants  more  favourably  circumstanced  than 
those  either  working  as  yeradjis  for  Turkish 
landlords,  or  tilling  their  own  small  holdings. 
But  for  the  Greeks  generally  agriculture  has  no 
great  attraction,  unless  they  see  in  it  an  opening 
for  enterprise  and  speculation,  as  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  some  special  product,  such  as  silk  or 
cotton,  which  can  be  sold  to  advantage  either 
in  the  raw  or  as  manufactured  goods.  Nor  is 
the  whole  family  of  a  Greek  peasant  wedded 
to  the  soil  as  the  one  business  of  life.  When 
the  paterfamilias  can  dispense  with  the  services 
of  some  of  his  daughters  they  seek  domestic 
service  in  the  towns,  and  his  sons  also  frequently 
quit  the  homestead  in  pursuit  of  more  lucrative 
employment  at  a  distance.  Endowed  with  a 
surprising  energy  and  versatility,  the  son  of  a 
Greek  peasant  may  become  a  doctor,  lawyer,  or 
schoolmaster,  merchant,  shopkeeper,  servant, 
or  artisan,  in  any  of  which  spheres  he  will  gen- 
erally manage,  by  dint  of  energy,  perseverance, 
and  address,  to  realise  a  modest  competence,  if 
not  make  a  fortune.   Among  others  I  may  instance 


238  Turkish  Life 

the  family  of  a  Greek  farmer  in  Eastern  Mace- 
donia. The  eldest  son  remained  to  assist  his 
father,  while  four  of  his  brothers  and  a  sister 
emigrated  to  Salonica.  The  latter,  together  with 
one  of  the  youths,  took  service  in  a  European 
family,  and  the  two  others  apprenticed  them- 
selves respectively  to'  a  photographer  and  a  painter 
of  ikons,  or  church  pictures,  while  the  fourth 
learnt  cigarette-making.  By  dint  of  industry 
and  economy  the  four  boys  soon  saved  enough 
money  to  enable  them  to  send  for  their  youngest 
brother  and  to  support  him  while  he  attended 
the  local  gymnasium,  as  the  Greek  schools  mod- 
elled on  those  of  Germany  are  termed. 

The  Greeks  represent  to  a  large  extent  the  in- 
telligence of  Macedonia,  as  of  other  provinces  of 
Turkey,  but  they  are  no  longer  recognised,  as 
formerly,  as  the  upper  stratum  of  the  Christian 
population,  nor  are  they  now  largely  employed 
by  the  Porte  as  officials.  This  change  has  come 
about  since  the  creation  of  the  Greek  kingdom,  of 
which  it  is  a  direct  result.  For,  on  the  one  hand, 
the  political  sympathies  of  enlightened  Greeks  are 
now  with  Greece,  and  to  serve  the  enemy  of  the 
patridha,  or  fatherland,  is  held  by  every  right- 
thinking  Greek  to  be  unpatriotic.  I  have,  indeed, 
known  of  high  officials  resigning  their  posts  on 
this  ground  alone;  and  the  Turks,  on  their  side, 
not  unnaturally  look  upon  Greeks  occupying  offi- 
cial positions  with  a  certain  degree  of  distrust. 


The  Macedonian  Nationalities  239 

Greek  family  life  in  many  parts  of  Turkey, 
even  at  the  present  day,  generally  strikes  the 
stranger  as  a  curious  mixture  of  East  and  West. 
The  better-class  families  copy  European  manners, 
and  speak  French  more  or  less  fluently ;  but,  as 
a  matter  of  fact,  their  existence,  like  that  of  their 
Turkish  neighbours,  is  still  to  a  great  extent,  and 
especially  in  the  towns  of  the  interior,  divided 
practically  into  harem  and  selamlik — a  separation 
not  only  between  the  men's  and  women's  apart- 
ments, but  also  between  formal  and  domestic 
life.  When  visiting  a  well-to-do  Greek  family, 
one  may  not  at  first  observe  any  signs  of  Oriental 
manners,  save  in  the  customary  refreshments 
offered,  namely,  preserves,  accompanied  by  tum- 
blers of  water,  and  followed  by  Turkish  coffee. 
The  furniture  is  European,  and  the  costumes  of 
men  and  women  are  quite  correct,  and  abreast  of 
current  fashions — most  likely  direct  from  Paris. 
But  this  is  probably  mere  outside  show,  and  if 
we  penetrate  beyond  the  reception-rooms  where 
we  have  been  entertained  by  the  younger  genera- 
tions, we  may  find  the  patriarch  of  the  family  in 
pelisse  and  fez,  seated  cross-legged  on  the  di- 
van in  Oriental  fashion,  and  waited  upon  by  the 
elderly  black-robed  women  relatives  who  attend 
to  domestic  affairs  and  do  not  appear  before 
strangers. 

The  life  of  women  of  the  shopkeeper  and  ar- 
tisan classes  in  the  provincial  towns  is  also  still 


240  Turkish  Life 

very  secluded,  as  it  is  considered  an  impropriety 
to  be  seen  much  out-of-doors,  especially  for 
young  girls,  who  must  always  be  accompanied 
by  their  mothers  or  some  elderly  relative.  Oc- 
cupation in  shops  is  not  open  to  them,  nor,  un- 
less compelled  by  sheer  necessity,  will  they  leave 
home  and  take  service  with  others.  Some  oc- 
cupy themselves  with  needlework,  lace-making, 
embroidery,  and  the  home  manufacture  of  vari- 
ous small  articles;  but  it  is  only  in  the  silk-  and 
cotton-growing  districts  of  Asia  Minor  that  they 
are  employed  in  factories. 

Greek  peasants,  whether  yeradjis  or  small 
proprietors,  seldom  occupy  the  same  villages 
with  those  of  other  races.  Their  women,  though 
not  employed  in  field-work  to  such  an  extent  as 
the  Bulgarians,  take  an  active  part  in  much  of 
the  labour  connected  with  the  farm  or  vineyard, 
and  their  household  duties  are  many  and  varied. 
To  the  Greek  peasant  girl  is  committed  the  care 
of  her  father's  flock,  which  she  must  lead  to  the 
pasture  every  day  and  to  the  fold  at  night.  The 
Voskopoula,  or  shepherdess,  is  one  of  the  most 
prominent  characters  in  rural  folk-song,  and 
many  a  charming  idyll  has  been  composed  in 
her  honour  by  amorous  swains.  But  she  has 
little  time  for  sylvan  dallying,  for  the  sheep  and 
goats  have  to  be  milked,  and  the  milk  converted 
into  cheese  and  yiaourti,  a  delicious  and  whole- 
some sour  curd,  which  is  in  great  demand  in  the 


The  Macedonian  Nationalities  241 

towns.  The  cotton  and  flax  grown  on  the  farm 
are  also  gathered  by  the  women  in  their  seasons 
and  prepared  for  use.  A  certain  proportion  is 
reserved  for  knitting,  and  it  is  most  pleasing  to 
watch  the  graceful  motions  and  picturesque 
poses  of  the  women  and  girls  as,  standing  on 
their  little  wooden  balconies  or  terraced  roofs, 
they  send  the  spindle  whirling  down  into  court- 
yard or  village  street  while  twisting  the  thread 
for  this  purpose. 

But,  laborious  as  the  lives  of  these  thrifty  peas- 
ants may  appear,  Sundays  and  saints'  days  are 
holidays  duly  observed  and  thoroughly  enjoyed. 
The  working  dress  of  plain  homespun  is  then 
laid  aside,  and  the  picturesque  gala  costume 
donned;  for  though  the  Greek  women  in  the 
coast  towns  of  Turkey  have  almost  entirely  dis- 
carded their  picturesque  native  dress,  it  is  still 
worn  by  the  peasants  of  the  interior.  It  consists 
generally  of  a  skirt  of  brightly  striped  stuff  or 
silk,  an  embroidered  apron,  and  a  short-waisted 
cloth  vest,  also  embroidered;  while  for  out-of- 
door  wear  a  fur-lined  jacket  is  added.  The  hair 
is  braided  into  numerous  tresses,  and  surmounted 
by  a  small  red  cap  decorated  with  gold  and  sil- 
ver coins  similar  to  those  worn  as  a  necklace. 
The  dress  of  the  men,  being  of  sombre  hue,  sets 
off  to  advantage  the  splendour  of  the  feminine 
holiday-makers.     After  attending  Mass   in  the 

little  whitewashed  church,  to  which  they  are 
16 


242  Turkish  Life 

summoned  by  the  sound  of  the  primitive  sytnan- 
dro  (a  board  struck  with  a  mallet),  the  simple 
morning  meal  is  eaten,  the  cattle  and  poultry  are 
fed,  and  the  rest  of  the  day  is  given  up  to  well- 
earned  repose  and  amusement.  In  the  afternoon 
the  peasants  resort  en  masse  to  the  village  green. 
The  middle-aged  and  elderly  men  take  their 
places  in  the  background  under  the  rustic  vine- 
embowered  verandah  of  the  cofTee-house,  the 
matrons,  with  their  little  ones,  gather  under  the 
trees  to  gossip,  while  their  elder  sons  and  daugh- 
ters perform  the  syrto,  the  "  long-drawn  "  classic 
dance.  Each  youth  produces  his  handkerchief, 
which  he  holds  by  one  corner,  presenting  the 
other  to  his  partner;  she  in  her  turn  extends  her 
own  to  the  dancer  next  to  her,  and,  the  line  thus 
formed,  "Romaika's  dull  round"  is  danced  to 
the  rhythm  of  a  song  chanted  in  dialogue  form, 
with  or  without  the  accompaniment  of  pipe  and 
viol,  until  the  lengthening  shadows  of  evening 
send  the  villagers  home  to  their  sunset  meal. 

The  advantages  of  education  are  at  the  present 
day  by  no  means  restricted  to  the  upper  class  of 
Greeks,  for  not  only  in  the  towns,  but  in  almost 
every  village  where  there  is  a  Greek  community, 
schools  have  been  founded  in  which  the  instruc- 
tion given  to  both  girls  and  boys  is  of  a  very  high 
order.  Here  the  children  of  rich  and  poor  sit 
side  by  side  in  the  same  class,  a  practice  which, 
I  have  often  been  assured,  tends  rather  to  elevate 


The  Macedonian  Nationalities  243 

the  tone  of  the  children  of  the  people  than  to 
deteriorate  the  manners  of  the  better-bred.  Many 
of  the  women  teachers  in  these  often  remote  rural 
schools  are  young  women  from  Athens,  who 
have  left  home  and  country  to  improve  the  con- 
dition of  their  less  favoured  countrywomen  in 
Turkey,  and  are  in  return  idolised  by  the  scholars 
and  their  mothers. 

Family  affection  is,  perhaps,  the  noblest  trait 
in  the  Greek  character.  Nowhere  else,  I  think, 
does  one  see  fraternal  love  so  strongly  developed, 
or  the  women  of  a  family  so  tenderly  cared  for. 
Should  the  father  die,  the  brothers  take  his  place; 
and  so  long  as  a  sister  of  marriageable  age  re- 
mains unportioned  and  unwed,  they  will  refrain 
from  taking  a  wife  themselves.  Considerable 
remains  of  patriarchal  customs  have  also  survived 
even  among  the  wealthy  and  educated  classes  of 
the  Greeks  as  among  other  races  of  the  country, 
and  young  men,  on  marrying,  often  bring  their 
wives  to  the  paternal  home.  The  mother,  on 
the  death  of  her  husband,  is  not,  as  in  England, 
banished  to  the  "dower  house,"  but  retains  the 
place  of  honour  in  the  household,  and  receives 
every  mark  of  attention  and  respect,  not  only 
from  her  sons,  but  from  their  wives,  who  con- 
sider it  no  indignity  to  kiss  her  hand  or  that  of 
their  father-in-law  when  receiving  their  morning 
greeting  or  evening  benediction.  And  in  these 
irreverent  days  it  is  very  refreshing,  on  visiting  a 


244  Turkish  Life 

Greek  family,  to  see  the  widowed  mother  at  the 
head  of  the  table,  and  to  mark  the  deference  paid 
to  her  by  her  son  and  her  daughter-in-law. 

It  is  customary  among  the  Greeks  for  a  girl's 
parents  or  guardians  to  seek  a  suitable  husband 
for  her,  either  personally  or  through  the  agency 
of  a  professional  match-maker.  The  bride  re- 
ceives a  portion  in  money,  according  to  her 
station,  and  is  presented  also  with  an  ample 
trousseau,  stock  of  household  linen,  and  other 
supplies,  which  have  been  in  preparation  for  her 
for  years  past.  Betrothal  is  a  formal  ceremony 
which  takes  place  in  the  presence  of  the  relatives 
of  the  contracting  parties,  and,  being  considered 
almost  as  binding  as  marriage  itself,  is  almost  as 
difficult  to  set  aside.  I  remember  one  pretty 
Macedonian  peasant  girl,  who,  though  in  love 
with  a  youth  belonging  to  her  own  village,  had 
been  betrothed  by  her  mercenary-minded  parents 
to  a  wealthy  but  somewhat  elderly  farmer,  and,  to 
avoid  this  marriage,  had  eloped  with  her  lover 
to  Salonica.  A  cousin  of  the  girl  was  in  service 
at  the  British  Consulate-General,  and  by  him  the 
runaway  couple  were  introduced  to  the  Consul's 
lady,  who  at  once  communicated  with  the  Arch- 
bishop. Presently  the  angry  parents  appeared 
on  the  scene  in  hot  pursuit  of  the  fugitives.  But 
they  were  now  under  the  archi-episcopal  aegis; 
and  his  Holiness,  having  released  the  maiden 
from  her  arravon,  and  read  the  parents  a  lecture, 


The  Macedonian  Nationalities  245 

obtained  their  promise  to  allow  her  to  wed  the 
man  of  her  choice. 

The  wedding  ceremonies  of  the  Greeks,  es- 
pecially in  the  interior  of  Macedonia,  are  very 
numerous  and  elaborate,  and  are  attended  with 
quaint  old  customs  and  domestic  rites,  varying 
according  to  locality,  which  have  evidently  had 
their  origin  in  the  remotest  antiquity.  The  cere- 
monies observed  in  connection  with  death  and 
burial  are,  however,  almost  everywhere  iden- 
tical, and  include  many  archaic  customs  and 
time-honoured  traditions  among  the  rites  of  the 
Eastern  Church.  The  mourning  worn  by  the 
Greeks  of  Turkey  is  of  a  most  austere  character, 
especially  among  the  middle  and  lower  classes. 
Ornaments  are  rigidly  set  aside,  and  all  articles 
of  dress  are  of  the  plainest  black  materials,  cot- 
ton or  woollen,  and  made  in  the  most  simple 
fashion  possible.  In  South  Macedonia  the  com- 
mon people,  on  the  death  of  a  near  relative,  send 
all  their  linen,  and  even  their  pocket-handker- 
chiefs, to  the  dyer's,  the  result,  as  may  be  sup- 
posed, being  funereal  in  the  extreme.  Women, 
too,  frequently  cut  off  their  hair  at  the  death  of 
their  husbands  and  bury  it  with  them;  men,  on 
the  other  hand,  allow  their  beards  to  grow  as  a 
sign  of  sorrow.  Mourning  is  also  worn  for  a 
considerable  period.  Girls,  after  their  father's 
death,  do  not  abandon  it  until  they  marry;  and 
widows  and  elderly  women  invariably  retain  the 


246  Turkish  Life 

garb  of  woe  as  their  permanent  attire;  for  in 
many  country  localities  custom  does  not  allow 
women  to  enter  a  second  time  into  wedlock, 
and  a  widow  who  ventured  thus  to  violate  pub- 
lic opinion  would  be  treated  with  scant  respect 
by  her  neighbours  for  the  rest  of  her  days. 

Besides  the  shepherds  who  roam  over  the 
Balkan  peninsula  with  their  flocks  in  search  of 
pasture,  as  described  in  the  chapter  on  "Nomad 
Life,"  large  numbers  of  Vlachs  have  their  homes 
in  the  hill-country  of  Thessaly,  Epirus,  Albania, 
as  well  as  Macedonia,  where  they  are  said  to 
number  some  500,000  souls.  But  even  the 
Vlachs  of  the  burgher  class  who  are  not  flock- 
masters  are  often  engaged  in  pursuits  which  re- 
quire them  to  lead  a  more  or  less  wandering  life. 
The  wealthier  section  of  the  community  are  mer- 
chants who  trade  in  Russia,  Austria,  and  Italy, 
as  well  as  in  other  parts  of  Turkey,  and  are  often 
absent  from  home  for  periods  extending  over 
many  years — a  mode  of  life  which  they  seldom 
relinquish  until  compelled  by  age  or  infirmity  to 
do  so.  The  important  town  of  Monastir,  one  of 
the  strongholds  of  Greek  influence  in  this  pro- 
vince, contains  a  large  colony  of  Greek-speaking 
Vlachs,  who  are  hardly  distinguishable,  save  in 
feature,  from  true  Greeks.  Many  of  them  are 
very  wealthy  and  enterprising,  and  have  busi- 
ness connections  with  foreign  countries.  The 
Inferior  class  of  traders  do  not,  however,  as  a 


The  Macedonian  Nationalities  247 

rule,  leave  the  Ottoman  Empire,  but  travel  with 
goods  of  all  kinds  for  sale  from  one  town  or 
village  to  another,  like  the  pedlars  in  England 
in  olden  time,  when,  as  in  Turkey  at  the  present 
day,  shops  were  few  in  small  boroughs  and  non- 
existent in  country  villages.  And  there  is  another 
industrial  class  of  Vlachs  who  go  to  the  larger 
towns  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year  to  work  as 
tailors,  embroiderers,  gold-  and  silversmiths,  or 
at  some  other  occupation.  Vlach  keradjis,  or 
carriers,  may  also  be  constantly  met  with  on  the 
road  with  their  long  files  of  pack-horses  or  mules 
conveying  produce  of  every  kind  to  and  from  the 
coast  towns. 

The  village  homes  to  which  these  wandering 
traders  and  mechanics  return  are,  as  has  been  said, 
chiefly  in  the  mountains  or  hidden  in  hollows  in 
the  tops  of  hills,  where  they  are  comparatively 
free  from  Turkish  oppression.  Yet  even  in  these 
high  altitudes  the  thrift  and  industry  of  the  Vlachs 
are  conspicuous.  Cornfields  and  vineyards  clothe 
the  hillsides,  and  the  terraced  and  well-irrigated 
gardens  produce  an  abundance  of  fruits  and  vege- 
tables. The  houses  are  for  the'  most  part  small, 
and,  like  those  of  Greek  mountain  villages,  roofed 
with  broad  limestone  slabs,  which  require,  in 
addition  to  their  other  fastenings,  heavy  stones 
to  keep  them  from  being  displaced  by  the  furious 
winds  to  which  these  elevated  regions  are  ex- 
posed.    Snugly  furnished,  according  to  Oriental 


248  Turkish  Life 

ideas  of  comfort,  are  many  of  these  mountain 
homes.  Tables  and  chairs  there  are  certainly 
none,  but  the  floors  are  covered  with  thick, 
richly  coloured  rugs,  the  handiwork  of  the  house- 
hold; and  along  the  walls  on  either  side  of  the 
hearth  a  range  of  comfortable  cushions,  covered 
with  home-woven  tissues,  do  duty  for  seats. 
The  whole  of  the  wall  opposite  the  fireplace  is 
occupied  by  an  artistically  designed  and  elabo- 
rately carved  wardrobe,  from  which  the  addi- 
tional rugs,  quilts,  and  mattresses  are  produced 
at  night  for  "spreading  the  beds." 

The  frequent  and  long-protracted  absence  from 
home  of  the  men  of  the  family  naturally  throws 
great  responsibility  and  various  duties  on  the 
women,  and  at  the  same  time  confers  on  them  a 
degree  of  social  independence  and  influence- not 
enjoyed,  as  a  rule,  by  their  Greek  neighbours. 
Far  away  as  the  men  of  the  family  may  be,  the 
field,  vineyard,  or  garden  attached  to  each  cot- 
tage or  homestead  must  be  cultivated,  its  harvest 
reaped,  and  the  produce  converted  into  winter 
provisions;  the  domestic  animals  are  tended,  the 
sheep  shorn,  and  the  wool  prepared  for  the  loom, 
which  occupies  a  corner  of  every  dwelling.  The 
daughters  are  from  an  early  age  accustomed  to 
both  domestic  and  outdoor  labour,  and  a  Vlacho- 
poula  may  often  be  seen  returning  from  the  fount- 
ain or  riverside,  bearing  on  her  back,  besides  a 
keg   of  water,   the  load  of  wet  linen  she  has 


The  Macedonian  Nationalities  249 

washed,  a  metal  basin  poised  on  her  head,  and 
her  untiring  hands  busy  with  the  spindle.  Nor 
does  she  lack  time  to  embroider,  in  bright  wools 
and  silks  dyed  with  her  own  hands,  her  pictur- 
esque native  costume,  or  to  knit  and  decorate  in 
coloured  cross-stitch  the  socks  she  sells  to  the 
shepherds,  the  proceeds  of  her  industry  being 
generally  invested  in  the  coarse  silver  ornaments 
with  which  she  decks  her  comely  person  on 
Sundays  and  feast-days.  It  requires,  indeed,  a 
strong  frame  to  support  the  weight  of  the  heav- 
ily embroidered  and  braided  gala  dress  when 
complete  with  belt,  collar,  bracelets,  and  head- 
gear of  this  alloyed  metal;  but  such  a  frame  is 
characteristic  of  these  hardy  daughters  of  the 
mountain,  who  are  tall,  well-knit,  well-poised, 
and  incapable  of  fatigue. 

The  Vlach  women  submit  cheerfully  to  their 
laborious  life,  and  the  wives  of  the  traders  will- 
ingly add  to  their  multifarious  duties  that  of  wait- 
ing on  their  fathers,  husbands,  or  brothers  during 
the  short  and  rare  periods  which  they  are  able 
to  spend  in  the  bosom  of  their  family.  No 
stranger  can,  however,  command  their  services, 
for  they  have  an  invincible  repugnance  to  leav- 
ing their  homes,  to  which  they  are  devotedly 
attached. 

Although  the  Vlach  communities  in  Thessaly 
and  Macedonia  maintain  various  social  relations 
with  the  Greeks,  they  do  not  to  any  great  extent 


250  Turkish  Life 

intermarry  with  them.  Indeed,  it  is  said  that 
while  Vlach  men  occasionally  take  Greek  brides, 
no  Vlach  girl  ever  marries  outside  her  own  com- 
munity. Nor  do  the  wedding  ceremonies  of 
these  people — with  the  exception  of  the  religious 
rite,  which  they  observe  as  members  of  the  Or- 
thodox Church — resemble  at  all  those  of  the 
Greeks,  but  rather  those  of  the  ancient  Romans. 

The  Bulgarians  of  Macedonia  are  to  be  met 
with  in  scattered  communities  throughout  almost 
the  whole  of  the  province,  occupying  in  some 
localities  only  isolated  villages,  and  in  others 
forming  the  bulk  of  the  population  of  a  district. 
These  people  are  of  two  distinct  types,  the  Slavo- 
Tartar  and  the  Slavo-Greek.  The  former  are 
distinguished  by  high  cheek-bones,  broad  faces, 
small,  sunken  eyes,  wide,  flat  noses,  eyebrows 
thick  and  prominent,  and  dark  complexion. 
The  other  type  bears  a  strong  general  resem- 
blance to  the  rest  of  the  mixed  Christian  popu- 
lation of  the  Balkan  provinces,  some  of  their 
women  being  extremely  pretty. 

The  salient  characteristic  of  the  Bulgarian  peas- 
antry is  their  industry.  The  frequent  Church  fes- 
tivals and  holidays  observed  by  the  Bulgarians, 
in  common  with  the  Greeks,  make  it  necessary 
for  them  to  work  doubly  hard  on  other  days  in 
order  to  accomplish  the  year's  work  in  twelve 
months;  and  during  the  spring  and  summer 
the  whole  family  labour  assiduously  from  sunrise 


The  Macedonian  Nationalities  251 

to  sunset,  the  women  and  girls,  as  soon  as  their 
household  duties  are  finished,  going  out  to  assist 
the  men  and  boys  in  the  fields.  The  spinning, 
weaving,  and  other  home  manufactures  are  car- 
ried on  chiefly  in  the  winter,  when  the  female 
portion  of  the  family  is  less  called  upon  for  out- 
door work  than  in  other  seasons.  Some  of  the 
men  work  as  yeradjis  on  the  large  estates  of  the 
Beys  and  other  landed  proprietors,  but  the  ma- 
jority are  peasant  farmers,  owning  the  lands  they 
cultivate,  which  they  can  dispose  of  freely  by  sale 
or  will,  the  only  land  held  in  common  by  the  vil- 
lage being  the  pasturages  in  the  neighbourhood, 
to  which  all  have  an  equal  right.  The  chief  man 
in  a  Bulgarian  village  or  township  is  called  the 
Tchorbadji, — literally  the  "soup-maker," — who 
is  generally  the  possessor  of  many  broad  acres, 
and  a  man  of  considerable  wealth. 

The  houses  of  the  better  class  of  peasant  farm- 
ers are  solidly  constructed  of  stone,  and  are  suffi- 
ciently comfortable.  An  average  cottage  contains 
three  apartments — the  common  living-room,  the 
family  bedroom,  and  the  storeroom.  The  floor  is 
of  beaten  earth,  strewn  with  coarse  matting  and 
home-made  rugs.  The  furniture  consists  chiefly 
of  cushions  covered  with  thick  woollen  tissues, 
which  also  serve  the  family  as  beds.  On  the 
walls  are  a  few  engravings  in  very  odd  perspec- 
tive which,  though  produced  in  Russia,  are  dis- 
tributed  to  pilgrims  by  the  monks  of  Mount 


252  Turkish  Life 

Athos,  and  perhaps  a  painted  picture  of  some 
saint  with  a  tiny  oil  lamp  suspended  before  it. 
The  shelves  contain  some  articles  of  crockery, 
the  brightly  burnished  copper  cooking -pans 
found  even  in  the  poorest  house  in  the  East,  and 
various  odd  articles.  The  bedding,  rolled  up,  is 
tidily  piled  in  one  corner;  in  another  is  the  bulka's 
spinning-wheel,  and  in  the  inner  apartment  is 
the  loom  on  which  she  manufactures  the  tissues 
used  for  the  furniture  of  the  house  and  the  cloth- 
ing of  the  family.  Outside  are  sheds  for  the  cat- 
tle, pens  for  the  pigs  and  the  sheep,  poultry 
house,  oven,  and  perhaps  a  well,  all  enclosed  by 
a  wall  or  fence,  and  guarded  by  dogs. 

Like  all  the  peasants  of  Turkey,  the  Bulgarians 
are  most  economical,  and  even  frugal,  in  their 
habits.  They  are  content  with  very  little,  and 
live  generally  on  rye  bread  and  maize  porridge, 
or  beans  seasoned  with  vinegar  and  pepper,  sup- 
plemented with  the  produce  of  the  dairy.  On 
great  festivals  a  young  pig  or  a  lamb  is  added  to 
the  usual  fare,  together  with  home-made  wine 
and  a  heavy  kind  of  cake  called  a  banit^a. 

In  Macedonia  much  of  the  harvest-work  is 
done  by  women  and  girls,  Greek  and  Bulgarian, 
who,  as  well  as  the  men,  hire  themselves  to  the 
farmers  for  that  season.  On  the  21st  August 
(old  style)  the  harvest  home  is  celebrated  with 
great  rejoicings.  Decked  in  their  picturesque 
holiday  costumes,  crowned   with  flowers,  and 


The  Macedonian  Nationalities  253 

carrying  miniature  sheaves,  the  harvesters  pro- 
ceed to  the  nearest  township,  where  they  dance 
and  sing  before  the  doors  of  the  principal  houses 
and  in  the  market-place.  In  this  province  Bul- 
garian women  often  undertake  also,  in  addition  to 
farm-work,  such  manual  labour  as  would  in  most 
European  countries  be  performed  exclusively  by 
men.  One  may,  for  instance,  often  see  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Salonica  a  band  of  half  a  dozen 
women,  short  of  stature,  yet  extraordinarily  mus- 
cular, with  swarthy  complexions,  small,  twink- 
ling Tartar  eyes,  and  high  cheek-bones,  dressed 
in  stout  homespuns,  and  shod  with  foot-gear  of 
undressed  hide,  plying  their  primitive  spades  and 
mattocks  in  garden,  field,  or  vineyard,  apparently 
incapable  of  fatigue;  and  after  their  day's  labour 
walking  long  distances  to  their  village  homes 
among  the  rolling  hills  behind  the  city. 

The  Bulgarian,  like  the  Greek  peasants,  have 
few  amusements  save  the  song  and  the  dance. 
Unlike  the  Greeks,  however,  who  dance  only  at 
appointed  times  and  seasons,  the  Bulgarians  are 
always  ready  for  this  national  pastime.  At  the 
first  discordant  sound  of  the  gaida — the  native 
bagpipe — the  young  men  and  girls  form  a  circle, 
holding  each  other  by  the  girdle,  and  enter 
enthusiastically  and  untiringly  into  the  dance. 
Dancing  songs  have  in  England  completely  dis- 
appeared, save,  perhaps,  as  an  accompaniment  to 
children's  games.     But  among  the  Christian  peo- 


254  Turkish  Life 

pies  of  the  Balkan  peninsula  they  still  constitute 
the  principal  social  diversion,  and  the  national 
poetry  is  taught  in  the  school  of  the  dance.  The 
Bulgarian  language  is  indeed  particularly  rich  in 
folk-poesy,  as  proved  by  the  voluminous  collec- 
tions made  by  native  folklorists,  nearly  all  of 
which,  it  may  be  remarked,  were  taken  down 
from  the  lips  of  women. 

Among  the  Bulgarians,  as  among  other  nation- 
alities, old  customs  must  be  sought  for  among 
the  peasantry,  and  the  observances  connected 
with  marriage  are  not  the  least  curious  and 
interesting.  A  young  peasant  cannot  marry 
until  his  parents  for  whom  he  has  laboured 
can  afford  to  give  him  a  sum  of  money  sufficient 
to  buy  him  a  wife.  The  price  ranges  from 
£50  to  £300,  according  to  the  position  of  the 
contracting  parties,  and  this  as  well  as  another 
and  smaller  sum  called  "head-money,"  which 
is  paid  to  the  mother,  is  settled  by  the  proxies. 
The  gody,  as  the  betrothal  is  called,  then  takes 
place,  a  Wednesday  or  Thursday  evening  being 
considered  the  most  auspicious  time  for  the 
ceremony.  It  consists  of  the  exchange  of  docu- 
ments certifying,  on  the  one  hand,  the  sum  of 
money  to  be  paid  by  the  bridegroom,  and,  on 
the  other,  the  quantity  and  quality  of  the  trous- 
seau, or  rather  "plenishing,"  promised  by  the 
maiden's  parents.  Rings  are  also  interchanged 
by  the  couple  after  being   consecrated  by  the 


The  Macedonian  Nationalities  255 

priest,  who  acts  the  part  of  notary  on  such 
occasions.  A  short  blessing  follows,  the  fiancee 
kisses  the  hands  of  the  assembled  company, 
and  then  retires  with  her  friends  to  feast  apart, 
una  wed  by  the  presence  of  the  elders,  for  whom 
a  table  is  spread  in  the  principal  room.  The 
word  ''table"  is,  however,  a  misnomer,  for 
such  articles  of  furniture  are  found  only  in  the 
dwellings  of  the  wealthier  farmers,  and  the 
cloth  is  generally  spread  on  the  floor,  or,  per- 
haps, for  the  elder  and  more  distinguished 
guests,  on  the  low  circular  stands,  called  by 
the  Turks  soft  a.  The  young  people  afterwards 
dance  outside  the  house  and  sing  songs  at 
intervals.  The  fiance'  then  produces  his  pre- 
sents, which  consist  of  various  articles  of  femi- 
nine apparel,  including  several  pairs  of  native 
shoes,  a  headdress,  and  necklace  of  gold  and 
silver  coins,  a  silver  belt,  bracelets,  earrings,  and 
other  ornaments.  The  value  of  these  gifts  is 
freely  appraised  by  the  girl's  father,  and  a  bargain 
generally  ensues,  the  suitor  adding  to  the  neck- 
lace or  headdress  coin  after  coin  until  the  good- 
man  is  content.  These  treasures  are  bestowed 
in  the  tekneh,  the  wooden  trough  which  serves 
equally  for  kneading  the  bread  and  cradling  the 
little  ones,  and  the  festivities  are  resumed.  On 
the  following  day  the  young  woman  proudly 
dons  all  this  finery,  and  parades  herself  in  the 
village  as  "engaged." 


256  Turkish  Life 

Religion,  as  understood  by  the  Bulgarian  peas- 
antry, consists  of  an  agglomeration  of  super- 
stitious rites  concerning  times  and  seasons,  fasts 
and  feasts,  and  the  other  outward  forms  or- 
dained by  the  Eastern  Church,  and  by  custom ; 
and  the  various  events  of  the  ecclesiastical  year 
are  also  inextricably  mixed  up  with  fragments 
of  old  pagan  beliefs  and  practices.  Their  re- 
ligion is,  indeed,  in  great  part  a  survival  of 
the  pantheistic  worship  of  the  ancient  Slavs, 
which  the  invading  Bulgarians  adopted  together 
with  the  language  of  the  conquered  people 
among  whom  they  settled,  and  it  teems  with 
wild  cosmogonic  myths.  For  the  Bulgarian 
peasant  believes  the  mountains,  valleys,  rivers, 
and  springs  to  be  still  haunted  by  the  Slav 
nymphs  of  antiquity,  the  Vilas,  Samovilas,  and 
Samodivas,  or  by  the  fire-breathing  Zmoks  and 
Ogenihs,  a  kind  of  dragon;  the  Youdas,  or 
Fates,  still  concern  themselves  with  the  affairs 
of  humankind;  and  Bulgarian  ballads  —  the  oral 
and  only  literature  of  the  peasants  —  are  full  of 
allusions  to  adventures  of  mortals  with  all  these 
supernatural  beings. 

The  social  life  of  the  wealthy  class  in  the 
large  towns  is  very  similar  to  that  of  Greeks 
of  the  same  standing,  and  the  ladies,  though 
perhaps  less  cultured,  as  a  rule,  than  the  Greek, 
are  not  deficient  in  manners  and  attainments. 
Education  is,  in  fact,   becoming   more  general 


The  Macedonian  Nationalities  257 

year  by  year,  and  the  political  rivalry  between 
the  Bulgarian  and  Greek  peoples  has  proved, 
during  the  last  quarter  of  a  century,  a  powerful 
incentive  to  intellectual  progress. 

There  is,  as  a  rule,  no  greater  degree  of  social 
intercourse  between  the  Christian  and  Turkish 
peasantry  than  there  is  between  the  Christ- 
ian and  Turkish  townsfolk,  although  they  live 
together  amicably  enough  as  neighbours  when 
fanatical  feeling  is  not  excited  by  war  or  other 
circumstances.  The  prejudice  against  mixed 
marriages  is  naturally  very  great,  and  no  alli- 
ance of  the  kind  can  take  place  without  per- 
version on  one  side  or  the  other.  The  perversion 
must,  however,  be  on  the  side  of  the  Christian, 
for  in  Islam  apostasy  is  a  crime.  But  though 
one  seldom  hears  of  a  Christian  man  embracing 
Islam  for  the  sake  ot  a  Moslem  love,  it  is  by  no 
means  of  rare  occurrence  that  a  Christian  peas- 
ant-girl, prompted  by  vanity  or  ambition,  re- 
nounces the  faith  of  her  fathers  in  order  that 
she  may  marry  a  wealthy  Turk  who  has  flattered 
her  by  his  attentions.  She  is  not,  however, 
allowed  to  do  this  hurriedly,  or  without  due 
consideration.  The  usual  mode  of  procedure 
is  for  the  girl  to  run  away  from  home  and  take 
refuge  in  a  harem.  She  then  appears  before  the 
Medjliss,  or  Town  Council,  and  announces  her 
desire  to  be  received  into  the  ranks  of  the  true 
believers.     Her.  parents  and  friends,  supported 


258 


Turkish  Life 


by  the  Greek  Bishop,  use  their  influence  to 
prevent  her  taking  this  final  step,  and  painful 
and  sometimes  tumultuous  scenes  ensue.  If 
the  girl  persists  in  her  determination,  she  is 
permitted  to  make  a  formal  declaration  of  belief 
in  the  tenets  of  Islam,  and  she  becomes  to  all  in- 
tents and  purposes  a  Moslem,  endowed  with 
all  the  social  and  legal  privileges  enjoyed  by  a 
woman  of  that  creed. 


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CHAPTER    XII 

THE   ARMENIAN   COMMUNITIES 

THE  Armenians,  besides  constituting  the  bulk 
of  the  population  in  Armenia  proper,  form 
large  communities  in  Constantinople  and  Adri- 
anople,  at  Broussa  and  Smyrna,  and  are  also 
found  in  several  of  the  smaller  towns  of  Turkey. 
In  the  capital  and  at  Smyrna  the  wealthier  mem- 
bers of  the  Armenian  communities  are  much 
more  advanced  in  every  respect  than  elsewhere, 
but  in  the  latter  city  their  adoption  of  Western 
manners  and  education  dates  even  farther  back 
than  in  the  capital.  Here,  as  elsewhere,  the  Ar- 
menians occupy  a  separate  quarter  of  the  town, 
which  compares  favourably,  both  as  to  the  width 
and  cleanliness  of  its  streets  and  the  architecture 
of  its  houses,  with  the  other  quarters  of  the  city, 
not  excepting  even  that  occupied  by  the  so-called 
"  Franks,"  or  Europeans. 

Substantial  proof  of  the  comparative  freedom 

from  Moslem  molestation  now  generally  enjoyed 

by  the  subject  races  inhabiting  the  seaport  towns, 

as  compared  with  their  position  at  the  beginning 

259 


260  Turkish  Life 

of  the  last  century,  is  afforded  by  the  difference 
in  the  style  of  houses  of  the  better  class  built 
during  the  past  twenty  or  thirty  years.  The 
older  houses  are  externally  somewhat  gloomy  in 
appearance,  having  often  on  the  ground  floor  no 
windows  overlooking  the  street,  and  the  great 
double  gateways  are  faced  with  iron  and  de- 
fended inside  with  heavy  bars.  The  interior, 
however,  even  of  these  older  houses,  is  the  re- 
verse of  gloomy,  for  the  spacious  marble-paved 
entrance  hall,  furnished  as  a  sitting-room,  is  di- 
vided only  by  a  glass  partition  from  a  pleasant 
garden,  and  into  this  all  the  ground-floor  rooms 
open.  The  upper  stories  far  overhang  the  street, 
and  in  the  narrower  thoroughfares,  as  in  the 
streets  of  old  London,  one  can  almost  from  the 
windows  shake  hands  with  opposite  neighbours. 
This  style  of  architecture  presented  many  ad- 
vantages when  the  dwellings  of  the  Christians 
were  exposed  to  the  attacks  of  the  insolent  and 
lawless  Janissaries,  though  it  did  not  always 
effectually  protect  their  occupants  from  violence. 
The  modern  houses,  both  large  and  small,  are 
much  more  cheerful  in  appearance.  The  wide 
doorways,  being  above  instead  of  below  the 
level  of  the  street  as  in  the  older  houses,  are 
approached  by  handsome  steps  of  white  marble, 
and  the  spacious  hall  within  is  paved  with  large 
slabs  of  the  same  material.  In  the  smaller  houses 
— in  Smyrna  often  of  one  story  only,  on  account 


The  Armenian  Communities    261 

of  the  frequent  earthquakes — the  drawing-room 
windows  alone  overlook  the  street,  all  the  other 
rooms  receiving  their  light  and  air  from  the  hall. 
The  far  end  of  this  apartment,  which  is  used  as 
a  general  sitting-room,  often  contains  a  fountain, 
and  is  converted  into  a  species  of  conservatory, 
with  creepers  and  choice  shrubs  in  vases.  The 
rest  of  it  is  furnished  with  a  Turkish  sofa,  a  few 
common  chairs,  and,  in  winter,  a  carpet.  This, 
however,  is  but  a  middle-class  dwelling.  The 
abode  of  a  wealthy  Armenian  is  a  palatial  edifice, 
replete  with  European  comforts  and  luxuries. 
Orange,  lemon,  and  pomegranate  trees  blossom 
and  bear  fruit  in  his  gardens,  which  are  also 
fragrant  with  flowers  all  the  year  round.  On 
the  broad,  raised  footpaths,  tesselated  into  grace- 
ful patterns  with  black  and  white  pebbles,  saun- 
ter the  almond-eyed  Mariems  and  Tarquis  in 
loose  Oriental  garments  and  with  slipshod  feet, 
or  in  the  latest  fashions  from  Paris,  according  to 
circumstances  and  the  time  of  day.  The  beauti- 
fully situated  village  of  Buyukdere  on  the  Bos- 
phorus  is  a  favourite  resort  of  the  wealthy 
Armenians  of  the  capital,  many  of  whom  pass 
the  summer  months  in  the  elegant  marine  villas, 
which,  rising  behind  each  other  up  the  steep 
hill,  command  a  magnificent  view  of  the  won- 
derful waterway  and  its  picturesque  banks. 

The  dwellings  of  the  poorest  class  of  Armeni- 
ans— the  hammals,  or  porters,  and  the  boatmen, 


262  Turkish  Life 

and  fishermen — though  small,  are  not,  as  a  rule, 
without  a  certain  amount  of  decent  comfort, 
suited  to  their  mode  of  life.  There  is  very  little, 
if  any,  overcrowding  among  either  the  Christ- 
ian or  Moslem  poor  of  Turkey,  each  family 
having  its  own  separate  cottage,  generally  ap- 
proached by  a  little  courtyard;  and  the  exclusive- 
ness  of  Oriental  family  life  renders  any  subletting 
to  lodgers  extremely  rare. 

The  houses  in  Armenia  proper  present  a  strik- 
ing contrast  to  those  above  depicted.  The 
traveller  visiting  these  remote  regions  at  the 
present  day  finds  the  inhabitants  of  the  Armenian 
villages  living  in  houses  precisely  similar  to  those 
described  by  the  great  Greek  general  Xenophon, 
in  his  Retreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand.  These 
dwellings  now,  as  then,  are  mere  burrows  in 
the  ground ;  the  front  is  formed  by  terracing  the 
slope  of  a  hillside  for  the  space  of  a  few  yards, 
the  room  or  rooms  are  excavated  in  the  hill,  and 
all  the  soil  dug  out  is  thrown  against  the  side 
walls  and  on  the  roof,  which  is  supported  by 
strong  wooden  posts  and  beams.  In  some  of 
the  towns  —  Erzeroum,  for  instance,  which  is 
situated  on  the  lower  slopes  of  a  mountain — the 
style  of  building  is  very  similar.  Each  room  is 
built  like  a  separate  house,  with  a  flat  roof, 
which  communicates  with  those  above  and  be- 
low it  by  means  of  steps.  One  may  walk  along 
these  terraces  from  house  to  house  over  a  great 


The  Armenian  Communities    263 

part  of  the  town,  and  when  stopped  by  a  street 
a  moderate  leap  will  suffice  to  clear  the  chasm, 
so  narrow  are  the  thoroughfares.  The  space  of 
ground  occupied  by  a  rich  man's  house  is  conse- 
quently enormous,  and  the  top,  on  which  the 
grass  grows  luxuriantly,  looks  like  a  terraced 
field.  On  the  broad,  mushroom-shaped  chim- 
neys the  storks  build  their  nests  unmolested 
year  after  year,  winging  their  way  to  warmer 
climes  at  the  approach  of  winter,  and  greeted  by 
the  children  on  their  return  with  glad  songs 
of  welcome.  During  the  brief  hot  season  the 
family  live  chiefly  on  the  housetop,  and  the 
whole  family  frequently  bring  up  their  mattresses 
and  cushions,  and  sleep  "at  the  moon's  inn"  in 
company  with  their  many  domestic  pets. 

The  floors  of  all  these  houses  are  below  the 
level  of  the  roadway.  A  low,  wide  door  gives 
access  to  a  dark  central  passage,  on  one  side  of 
which  is  the  ox-stable,  or  byre,  and  on  the  other 
are  the  kitchen,  storeroom,  and  private  apart- 
ments of  the  family.  Each  room  has  a  rude 
stone  fireplace,  in  which  are  burnt  cakes  of 
te^ek,  a  fuel  made  from  the  sweepings  of  the 
byre,  and  largely  used  throughout  Asia  Minor. 
Some  of  the  wealthier  houses  may  boast  a  few 
chairs  and  tables;  but,  as  a  rule,  the  furniture 
consists  of  a  low,  wide  sofa  round  three  sides  of 
the  room,  covered  with  beautiful  stuffs  of  native 
manufacture,  and  some  valuable  Persian  or  Kurd- 


264  Turkish  Life 

ish  rugs  spread  over  the  thick  carpet  of  home- 
made grey  felt  which  covers  the  floor.  The 
walls  are  whitewashed,  and  the  wooden  ceilings 
are  curiously  carved  and  painted. 

Meals  are  served  on  a  sofra,  or  tray  and  stand, 
similar  to  that  used  by  the  Mohammedans,  and 
this  substitute  for  a  table  is  also  largely  made  use 
of  by  the  labouring  classes  at  Smyrna  and  in  the 
capital.  In  fact,  many  of  the  domestic  arrange- 
ments of  this  Asiatic  people  are  identical  with 
those  of  the  ruling  race,  for  there  is  a  good  deal 
of  truth  in  M.  de  Moltke's  observation  that  "the 
Armenian  is  but  a  baptised  Turk." 

The  byre  is  the  most  curious  part  of  an 
Armenian  house.  It  sometimes  contains  scores 
of  cattle,  whose  animal  heat  greatly  contributes, 
during  the  long  winter  months,  to  the  warmth 
of  their  human  neighbours.  One  end  of  this 
room  is  occupied  by  a  railed-in  platform,  used 
by  the  men  of  the  family  as  a  reception-room  for 
men  visitors.  It  is  furnished  with  the  custom- 
ary divan  and  rugs,  and  on  the  walls  and  ceiling 
are  suspended  saddles,  bridles,  guns,  pistols,  and 
other  weapons  of  war  or  the  chase,  while  under- 
neath the  floor  the  dogs  of  the  household  have 
their  abode. 

The  ancient  patriarchal  customs  which  have 
during  the  past  half-century  fallen  into  desuetude 
in  the  above-mentioned  cities  are  still  rigidly 
adhered  to  in  the  Armenian  highlands;  and  the 


The  Armenian  Communities    265 

housefather  gathers  beneath  his  own  rooftree 
his  married  sons  and  their  descendants  to  the 
third  or  fourth  generation,  one  household  often 
consisting  of  as  many  as  thirty  or  forty  persons, 
all  of  whom  must  necessarily  be  subject  to  his 
supreme  authority.  Early  marriages  are  the  rule, 
and  in  order  that  the  peace  and  harmony  of 
the  household  may  not  be  disturbed  by  quarrels 
among  the  numerous  young  women  brought 
one  after  another  into  a  house  as  wives  for  these 
successive  generations,  a  practice  is  resorted  to 
which  may  be  termed  ''the  subjection  of  the 
daughter-in-law,"  the  wisdom  of  which,  under 
the  circumstances,  must,  I  think,  be  admitted; 
for,  as  an  Armenian  proverb  says,  "A  house 
will  not  be  found  comfortable  if  more  than  one 
woman  rules  in  it." 

On  the  Saturday  after  a  bride  has  been  con- 
ducted to  her  new  home,  a  little  ceremony  takes 
place.  When  the  elder  members  of  the  family 
have  seated  themselves  in  state  on  the  long 
rectangular  divan  of  the  reception-room,  the 
young  wife  enters,  wearing  on  her  head  a  crim- 
son veil  which  partly  conceals  her  face,  and, 
beginning  with  the  head  of  the  household,  she 
kisses  in  turn  the  hands  of  all  who  are  older 
than  herself.  Thenceforward  she  must  not  pre- 
sume to  speak  to  her  husband's  parents,  or,  in- 
deed, to  any  of  his  relatives,  save  the  unmarried 
children  of  the  house;  nor  may  she  even  address 


266  Turkish  Life 

her  husband  in  the  presence  of  his  parents  until 
this  restriction  has  been  formally  removed.  The 
privilege  of  addressing  her  husband's  relatives 
may  not  be  given  for  years,  and  has,  indeed, 
often  been  permanently  withheld,  as  in  the  case 
of  the  mother  of  a  Smyrna  acquaintance  of  mine, 
who,  as  the  wife  of  a  younger  son,  had  never 
attained  such  a  position  in  the  household  as  to 
entitle  her  to  this  privilege. 

A  great  many  curious  ceremonies  are  observed 
by  the  Armenians  in  connection  with  such  family 
events  as  births,  marriages,  and  deaths.  A 
wedding  takes  a  whole  week  to  celebrate,  and 
when  a  wealthy  farmer  dies  all  the  inhabitants  of 
the  village  are  publicly  invited  by  the  priest  in 
church  to  the  funeral  feast.  They  have  also 
retained  a  great  many  strange  superstitious  prac- 
tices, and  believe  in  the  existence  of  a  variety  of 
supernatural  beings  possessing  propensities  and 
powers  both  benevolent  and  malevolent.  In  the 
long  winter  nights,  when  the  snow  lies  thick  in 
the  streets  and  on  the  housetops,  the  women 
fancy  they  hear  in  the  howling  of  the  wind  the 
shouts  and  laughter  of  these  tricksy  beings. 
And  the  young  women  and  girls,  when  the 
day's  tasks  are  done,  gather  round  the  grand- 
mother, who  relates  strange,  creepy  stories  of 
the  pranks  of  the  djins,  or  charming  romances 
dealing  with  peris,  magicians,  and  enchanted 
palaces,    while   the    grandfather,    sitting  cross- 


The  Armenian  Communities    267 

legged  in  his  fur-lined  pelisse  in  the  corner  of 
the  divan,  tells  the  boys  tales  of  the  Armenian 
heroes  of  old. 

Sitting  in  their  open  doorways  in  summer, 
and  at  their  windows  in  winter,  is  a  favourite 
pastime  with  the  Armenian  women  of  the  sea- 
board cities,  as,  indeed,  with  all  their  Christian 
neighbours.  This  practice,  which  is  perhaps 
seen  to  greatest  advantage  at  Smyrna,  offers  a 
strange  contrast  to  the  usual  rigidity  of  manners 
observed  in  the  East.  For  though  custom  for- 
bids the  young  women  to  receive  the  visits  of 
acquaintances  of  the  other  sex  in  the  house  save 
on  special  occasions,  it  allows  them  in  the  after- 
noons to  hold  levees  at  the  windows,  and  during 
the  carnival  this  licence  is  by  many  extended  to 
the  evenings,  when  gay  parties  of  the  jeunesse 
doree  of  this  Asiatic  capital  roam  the  streets  in  dis- 
guise, giving  notice  of  their  approach  by  music, 
or  merely  by  beating  the  primitive  doubana — an 
earthen  jar  with  a  piece  of  parchment  tied  tightly 
over  the  opening.  The  windows  of  the  modern 
houses  are  about  six  feet  above  the  street,  and 
below  them  the  masquers  station  themselves 
with  offerings  of  flowers  or  bonbons  for  the 
fair  ones,  who,  with  elbows  supported  on  the 
cushioned  window-ledges,  lean  out  above  them, 
eager  to  discover  their  identity — no  easy  matter, 
unless  the  masquers  choose  to  give  some  clue. 
Soon  they  pass  on  to  mystify  others,  and  are 


268  Turkish  Life 

succeeded  by  fresh  groups  still  more  fantastic, 
whose  costumes  represent  wild  Turcomans  from 
the  interior,  Greeks  from  the  Islands,  Arabs  from 
Mekka,  or  wandering  dervishes  from  Khorassan. 
Watching  these  wild  figures  in  the  dark,  narrow 
Oriental  street,  with  its  mysterious  gateways  and 
overhanging  upper  stories,  it  is  not  difficult  to 
fancy  one's  self  rather  in  the  days  of  the  great 
Haroun-al-Raschid  than  in  the  twentieth  century- 
Armenian  literature,  the  most  brilliant  period 
of  which  was  from  the  fifth  to  the  seventh  cent- 
ury, though  long  neglected,  is  at  present  in  a 
transitional  stage,  and  there  is  now  more  imita- 
tion than  creation.  Such  European  classics  as 
the  Iliad,  the  Odyssey,  and  Paradise  Lost,  are 
already  familiar  in  translation  to  the  Armenian 
reading  public,  as  are  also  the  works  of  Hugo, 
Dumas,  Ohnet,  and  other  French  authors,  some 
of  which  have  been  translated  into  the  vernacular 
by  the  ladies  of  the  capital  and  Smyrna  for  the 
benefit  of  their  less  cultured  sisters.  Already, 
however,  there  are  signs  of  a  desire,  at  least,  to 
revive  the  former  glories  ot  the  national  literature. 
Old  traditions  are  being  collected  and  published, 
and  periodicals  and  societies  established  devoted 
to  this  patriotic  and  praiseworthy  object. 

Though  the  great  majority  of  the  Armenians 
are  members  of  the  ancient  Gregorian  Church, 
the  Pope  has  had  since  the  sixteenth  century  a 
considerable  number  of  adherents  belonging  to 


The  Armenian  Communities    269 

this  nation,  and  the  labours  of  the  American  mis- 
sionaries have  resulted  in  the  formation  of  nu- 
merous small  Protestant  communities,  especially 
in  Asia  Minor,  estimated  collectively  at  some 
sixty  thousand  souls.  The  Armenians  are  an 
•essentially  thoughtful  and  serious  people,  and 
the  Orthodox  Gregorians  are  most  punctilious 
in  the  performance  of  the  ordinances  of  their 
Church.  The  fasts  and  feasts  observed  by  them 
coincide  with  those  of  their  Greek  neighbours, 
save  for  the  addition  of  ten  national  saints  to 
that  already  very  replete  calendar.  The  fasts 
are,  however,  observed  by  the  Armenians  with 
much  greater  rigour,  neither  shell-fish  nor  olive 
oil  being  partaken  of  in  Lent,  and  the  first  meal 
of  the  day  during  that  period  being  deferred  until 
late  in  the  afternoon.  In  addition  to  the  ordinary 
pilgrimages  made  to  the  shrines  and  churches  of 
saints  and  martyrs,  it  is  no  unusual  thing  for 
both  men  and  women  to  undertake  the  longer 
pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem,  the  accomplishment  of 
which  act  of  religious  duty  entitles  the  pilgrim 
to  the  Turkish  title  of  Hadji,  which  is  prefixed 
to  his  or  her  name. 

The  interior  arrangement  of  the  Gregorian 
churches  differs  somewhat  from  those  of  the 
Greeks  and  Latins.  A  great  curtain  hangs  in 
front  of  the  chancel,  and,  at  certain  parts  of  the 
service  and  during  the  whole  of  Lent,  conceals 
both  altar  and   clergy.     A  second  and  smaller 


270  Turkish  Life 

curtain  screens  the  altar  only,  and  is  drawn  dur- 
ing the  celebration  of  the  Eucharist  and  at  the 
conclusion  of  the  public  services.  There  are  no 
stalls  in  the  choir,  and,  save  in  the  town  churches, 
no  seats  for  the  congregation.  The  bishops  and 
other  dignitaries  only  are  provided  with  chairs; 
the  inferior  clergy  sit  cross-legged  on  carpets, 
while  the  congregation  squat  on  the  matted  floor 
or  sit  on  cushions  which  they  bring  with  them. 

The  higher  clergy  of  the  Gregorian  Church 
belong  to  the  monastic  orders,  and  number  in 
their  ranks  many  men  of  high  intellectual  attain- 
ments. The  secular  clergy,  however,  are  hardly 
at  all  superior  to  the  peasants  and  artisans  for 
whose  benefit  they  officiate.  Their  office  is 
usually  hereditary,  and  though  a  son  of  one  of 
these  parish  priests  may,  before  he  is  called  upon 
to  succeed  his  father,  be  engaged  in  a  lucrative 
calling,  he  is  obliged  to  relinquish  it  in  order  to 
take  upon  himself  the  sacred  office,  for  which  he 
is  often  unfitted  both  by  education,  or  want  of 
education,  and  by  inclination.  Very  poor  indeed 
are  the  generality  of  these  secular  priests,  their 
incomes  being  drawn  solely  from  the  small  an- 
nual contributions  of  their  parishioners,  the  fees 
paid  for  special  services,  and  such  small  gains 
as  may  accrue  from  the  sale  of  tapers  and  other 
"  articles  of  devotion."  A  few  pence  are  also 
paid  to  the  Derder  at  his  periodical  "blessing  of 
the  house,"  which  takes  place  at  Easter,  and  con- 


The  Armenian  Communities    271 

sists  of  the  recital  of  a  collect,  accompanied  by 
the  burning  of  incense  and  aspersion  with  holy 
water  in  the  sala,  or  central  room  of  the  house. 
Wealthy  families  have  this  ceremony  performed 
also  at  the  New  Year,  and  sometimes  have  every 
room  in  the  house  separately  blessed,  if,  as  my 
informant  remarked,  "they  care  to  pay  for  this 
luxury."  On  one  of  these  occasions,  when  I 
came  in  for  a  share  of  the  benediction,  the  Der- 
der  having  sat  down  after  the  ceremony  to  chat 
with  the  ladies  and  partake  of  coffee,  the  young- 
est daughter  of  the  house  went  off  to  the  store- 
room, whence  she  emerged  with  a  plateful  of 
the  sweet  biscuits  always  prepared  for  seasons 
of  festivity,  with  which  she  proceeded  to  fill  the 
pockets  of  his  rusty  black  cassock,  saying  to  me 
in  English  as  she  did  so,  "  These  are  for  his  little 
children ;  he  is  so  dreadfully  poor  that  I  am  sure 
they  have  none  at  home." 

Roman  Catholic  missionaries,  from  the  date 
of  the  separation  of  the  Eastern  and  Western 
Churches,  have  ever  been  actively  employed  in 
making  converts  among  the  Christian  subjects  of 
the  Sultan.  There  are,  however,  at  the  present 
day,  comparatively  few  adherents  of  the  Papacy 
in  Armenia  proper,  save  in  Erzeroum  and  other 
large  towns.  The  greater  number  inhabit  Con- 
stantinople and  Smyrna,  where  they  form  the 
higher  and  wealthier  section  of  the  Armenian 
community.     These  "Uniates,"  or  "United  Ar- 


272  Turkish  Life 

menians"  as  they  are  termed,  have  retained  in 
their  ritual  the  use  of  the  mother  tongue,  and 
also  certain  forms  of  worship  of  the  Gregorian 
Church.  It  must,  however,  in  justice  be  ad- 
mitted that  the  perversion  of  this  section  of  the 
Armenians  has  in  no  way  lessened  their  patriot- 
ism, but,  on  the  contrary,  has  enabled  them  to 
confer  immense  benefit  on  the  nation  generally. 
By  the  exertions  of  one  of  the  leading  ' '  Uniates, " 
a  monk  named  Mekhitar,  a  literary  and  educa- 
tional propaganda  was  in  the  seventeenth  century 
set  on  foot,  and  continues  to  the  present  day. 
This  Armenian  Society  for  the  Propagation  of 
Christian  Knowledge,  whose  headquarters  are 
in  two  small  islands  of  the  Venetian  lagoons, 
has  during  the  past  two  centuries  printed  and 
disseminated  an  immense  quantity  of  historical, 
educational,  and  religious  literature  among  the 
Armenians  of  the  East;  the  Armenian  Bible, 
parts  of  which  had  been  from  time  to  time 
printed,  having  been  first  issued  entire  by  this 
Mekhitarist  press  in  1805. 

In  the  remoter  provincial  towns  of  Asia  Minor 
there  is  still  at  the  present  day  hardly  more  social 
intercourse  between  the  sexes  in  the  Christian 
communities  than  among  the  Moslems.  The 
Armenian  women  there  still  live  in  great  seclu- 
sion, and  when  out-of-doors  are  muffled  in 
disguising  cloaks  and  veils  like  their  Turkish 
neighbours.     In  the  localities,  however,  in  which 


The  Armenian  Communities    273 

social  conditions  have  been  modified  by  external 
circumstances,  the  status  of  women  has  been 
raised  in  a  corresponding  degree.  And  the  con- 
trast between  the  manners  and  social  life  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  chilly  highlands  of  Armenia 
and  the  remote  towns  of  Eastern  Asia  Minor, 
and  those  of  the  dwellers  on  the  sunny  coasts  of 
the  Mgean  and  the  Bosphorus,  is  now  as  great 
as  the  difference  in  their  physical  surroundings. 
For  the  time-honoured  customs  above  described 
are,  in  the  cities  of  the  /Egean,  and  in  the  towns 
of  European  Turkey,  things  of  the  past,  and 
Western  education  and  ideas  are  here  with  every 
succeeding  generation  more  and  more  permeat- 
ing every  class  of  the  Armenian  communities. 

From  this  contrast  between  the  social  life  and 
manners  of  the  various  sections  of  the  Armenian 
nation  in  Turkey  naturally  follows  a  wide  differ- 
ence in  the  degree  of  education  to  which  they 
have  respectively  attained.  In  some  localities 
Turkish  has  for  centuries  past  entirely  replaced 
the  mother  tongue,  which  has,  during  that  pe- 
riod, been  used  only  in  the  services  of  the  Church, 
a  fact  which  forcibly  illustrates  the  state  of  de- 
nationalisation of  the  Armenians  under  Ottoman 
rule.  The  late  reawakening  of  national  senti- 
ment and  aspiration  has,  however,  naturally  re- 
sulted in  a  linguistic  reaction,  and  the  rising 
generation  now  everywhere  learns  at  school  its 
native  tongue,  which  will,  in  all  probability,  soon 


274  Turkish  Life 

entirely  supersede  the  use  of  Turkish  by  the  Ar- 
menians, save  as  a  foreign  language.  These  Ar- 
menian national  schools  are  all  supported  by 
voluntary  contributions;  for  though  an  educa- 
tion tax  is  levied  by  the  Government,  the  pro- 
ceeds are  applied  solely  to  the  support  of  the 
State  colleges,  open  to  all  nationalities,  and  there- 
fore hardly  such  an  injustice  as  it  is  often  repre- 
sented by  the  Armenians  to  be.  In  the  capital, 
and  at  Smyrna,  considerable  facilities  have  also 
for  many  years  existed  for  the  education  of  girls, 
but  in  the  Empire  generally,  the  proportion  of 
girls'  to  boys'  schools  is  still,  notwithstanding 
the  efforts  of  the  various  educational  societies, 
but  one  to  four. 


CHAPTER  XIII 


THE  HEBREW  COLONIES 


THE  Jews  of  Turkey  belong  chiefly  to  the 
two  sects  of  the  Sephardim  and  the  Ash- 
kena^im.  The  former  includes  all  the  descend- 
ants of  those  who,  on  their  expulsion  from  Spain 
in  1493  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  found  refuge 
in  the  Ottoman  Empire;  the  latter,  those  of  the 
earlier  settlers  in  the  country.  The  Jews  form 
considerable  communities  in  all  the  cities  and 
larger  towns  of  Turkey,  but  are  seldom  found 
established  in  the  villages  of  the  interior,  agri- 
culture not  being  here  one  of  their  industries. 
Their  great  centre  is,  however,  Salonica, — the 
great  seaport  of  Macedonia, — where  they  consti- 
tute the  majority  of  the  population ;  and  here  the 
life  of  these  Hebrew  colonists  may  perhaps  be 
most  fitly  studied.  The  Judaeo-Spanish  idiom 
which  the  immigrant  Israelites  brought  with 
them  from  their  Western  homes,  and  which  is 
written  in  Hebrew  characters,  is  now  used  both 
as  the  vernacular  and  literary  language  by  the 
Jews  throughout  Turkey. 
275 


276  Turkish  Life 

Morally,  as  well  as  intellectually,  the  Jews  of 
Turkey  may  be  said  to  be  far  more  backward 
than  any  of  the  other  native  races.  And  perhaps 
in  no  country  are  they  regarded  with  more  an- 
tipathy, or  treated  with  more  contumely,,  than 
in  the  Ottoman  Empire.  All  kinds  of  crimes, 
fictitious  or  real,  are  attributed  to  them,  from 
the  obligation  never  to  transact  business  with 
Christian  or  Moslem  without  defrauding  him,  to 
the  kidnapping  of  children  for  their  Passover  sac- 
rifice— a  wide-spread  vulgar  belief,  common  to 
both  Turks  and  Christians,  which  has  occasion- 
ally led  to  serious  riot  and  bloodshed,  as  I  have 
myself  witnessed.  The  Christian  populace  gen- 
erally allow  no  opportunity  to  pass  of  insulting 
the  Jews,  who,  as  a  rule,  submit  humbly  to  their 
ill-usage,  except  at  Salonica,  where  their  superior 
numbers  give  them  greater  audacity — at  least, 
where  Christians  are  concerned,  though  even 
here  they  are  as  abjectly  servile  in  their  relations 
with  Moslems  as  in  other  localities.  The  very 
mention  of  a  Jew  is  prefaced  by  a  Greek  with 
an  apology  for  naming  the  race,  and  the  Moslems 
on  their  side  treat  this  section  of  the  subject  pop- 
ulation with  unmitigated  contempt,  not  mani- 
fested as  a  rule  in  acts  of  personal  violence,  but 
in  scornful  gestures  and  opprobrious  epithets. 

The  Eastern  Jews  have,  however,  always  man- 
ifested a  greater  partiality  for  their  Moslem  rulers 
than  for  their  Christian  fellow-subjects,  and  in 


The  Hebrew  Colonies        277 

disputes  between  Turks  and  Christians  they  in- 
variably make  common  cause  with  the  former. 
For  though  the  Turks,  as  just  observed,  regard 
the  Jews  individually  with  undisguised  contempt, 
their  attitude  towards  them  collectively  has  al- 
ways been  more  tolerant  and  lenient  than  towards 
the  Christian  nationalities.  For  this  two  reasons 
may  be  assigned,  one  religious  and  the  other  po- 
litical. The  pure  monotheism  of  the  Hebrews, 
on  whose  Scriptures  the  Koran  is  so  largely 
based,  is  naturally  regarded  with  greater  favour 
by  the  equally  monotheistic  Moslem  than  the 
vulgar  polytheism  of  the  Eastern  Churches,  Ar- 
menian, Greek,  and  Bulgarian,  could  possibly 
be;  and  the  Jews,  being  devoid  of  all  political 
aspirations,  are  loyal  subjects,  and  are  in  no  way 
a  source  of  trouble  to  their  rulers.  The  wealthy 
Israelites  are,  indeed,  as  the  Turks  well  know, 
always  eager  to  help  the  authorities  in  any  diffi- 
culty; while  those  of  humbler  standing  will  not 
only,  in  their  servility,  perform  the  basest  and 
most  degrading  services  that  may  be  required  of 
them,  but,  as  was  abundantly  shown  during  the 
late  Armenian  atrocities  at  Constantinople,  are 
ready  to  encourage,  rather  than  deprecate,  out- 
bursts of  fanaticism  on  the  part  of  the  Moham- 
medan populace. 

If,  however,  the  following  anecdote  may  be 
considered  a  criterion,  the  real  sentiment  of  the 
Turkish  Jews  for  their  rulers  and  Christian  fel- 


278  Turkish  Life 

low-subjects  is  more  impartial  than  the  general 
attitude  would  lead  one  to  suppose.  A  Turk, 
a  Greek,  and  a  Jew  were  one  day  crossing  the 
Bosphorus  in  a  caique  rowed  by  the  first.  As  a 
caique  is  a  craft  very  easily  capsized  by  any 
brusque  movements  of  its  occupants,  the  Greek 
suggested  that  it  was  a  good  opportunity  for 
each  to  express  the  dearest  wishes  of  his  heart 
with  regard  to  the  others,  and  so  it  was  agreed. 
Said  the  Turk:  "Would  that  I  might  see  as 
many  Christians  massacred  as  there  are  sheep 
slain  at  Bairam!  "  "Would  that  I  might  see  as 
many  dead  Turks  as  there  are  red  eggs  eaten 
at  Easter!  "  cried  the  Greek.  "Now,  Jew,  what 
is  thy  wish?"  "I  pray  Allah  to  grant  the 
prayers  of  both,"  piously  ejaculated  the  Israelite. 
The  native  Jews  may,  however,  be  said  to 
form  two  classes  —  the  conservative  and  the 
progressive.  The  former,  who  constitute  by 
far  the  larger  class,  are,  generally  speaking, 
ignorant,  narrow-minded,  and  intolerant,  hold- 
ing themselves  aloof  from  their  neighbours  pro- 
fessing other  creeds,  with  whom  they  hold  only 
business  intercourse.  They  are  cunning  and 
avaricious,  and  although  many  among  them  are 
possessed  of  large  fortunes,  they  rarely  use  their 
wealth  for  the  benefit  of  the  community. 
Strongly  opposed  to  liberal  education,  the  local 
influence  they  possess  is  always  employed  to 
counteract  the  projects  of  their  more  enlightened 


The  Hebrew  Colonies        279 

brethren.  The  progressive  Jews,  who  are  be- 
coming pretty  numerous  among  the  upper 
classes,  naturally  act  in  direct  opposition  to  these 
principles,  and  also  endeavour  to  shake  off  such 
of  their  old  customs  and  traditions  as  they 
consider  detrimental  to  the  well-being  of  the 
community. 

Until  the  latter  half  of  last  century,  public  edu- 
cation was  practically  non-existent  among  the 
Jews  of  Turkey.  During  the  last  forty  years, 
however,  the  members  of  this  more  enlightened 
section  of  the  community  have  succeeded,  with 
the  assistance  of  their  European  co-religionists, 
in  removing  this  reproach,  and  good  schools  for 
both  sexes  have  for  some  years  past  been  estab- 
lished in  all  the  large  Jewish  centres  of  the  East. 
When  the  resources  of  these  denominational 
schools  are  low,  or  some  exceptional  expendi- 
ture is  necessary,  funds  are  sometimes  raised  by 
means  of  an  entertainment  in  which  all  the 
principal  inhabitants  of  the  city,  both  native  and 
foreign,  usually  take  part.  For  I  need  hardly 
say  that  the  animosity  towards  the  Jews  above 
referred  to  is  openly  manifested  only  by  the 
lower  classes;  and  as  the  Jewish  and  Moslem 
notables  honour  with  their  presence  and  contri- 
butions the  annual  gatherings  and  other  entertain- 
ments given  for  the  benefit  of  the  Greek  schools, 
Turkish  officials  and  members  of  the  leading 
Greek  families  in  their  turn   publicly  patronise 


280  Turkish  Life 

the  Jewish  educational  establishments.  During 
the  last  years  of  my  residence  at  Salonica,  one 
of  these  entertainments  took  the  form  of  a  ball 
at  the  schoolhouse.  Dancing  went  on  in  the 
lower  rooms,  the  classrooms  of  the  upper  floor 
being  reserved  for  smoking,  cards,  and  conver- 
sation, while  refreshments  and  supper  were 
served  under  the  brightly  illuminated  trees  and 
among  the  flower-beds  of  the  garden.  The 
Governor-General  and  his  son  were  present, 
and  though,  being  old-fashioned  Turks,  they  did 
not,  of  course,  join  the  dancers,  they  moved 
about  continually  among  them  and  appeared  to 
take  a  great  interest  in  the  proceedings.  The 
Greek  Archbishop,  in  his  tall  cylindrical  hat  and 
flowing  black  robes,  made  a  distinguished  figure, 
seated  side  by  side  with  the  chief  Rabbi  in  his 
fur-lined  pelisse  and  ample  parti-coloured  turban. 
Ball  dresses  were,  however,  conspicuous  by 
their  absence,  for,  aware  that  the  entertainment 
was  to  be  partially  al  fresco,  the  European  ladies 
had  avoided  low  dresses,  and  many  of  the  Sa- 
lonica Jewesses,  who  had  subscribed  their  liras,x 
presented  themselves  in  their  brilliantly  coloured 
native  costumes,  profusely  adorned  with  pearls, 
and  sparkling  with  diamonds. 

The  chief  occupations  of  the  higher  and  middle 
classes  of  Jews  in  Turkey,  as  elsewhere,  are 
banking  and  commerce.     They  excel  in  both  to 

1  A  Turkish  lira  is  equivalent  to  about  eighteen  shillings. 


The  Hebrew  Colonies        281 

such  a  degree  that  where  a  man  belonging  to 
another  nationality  can  only  realise  a  fair  com- 
petence, the  Israelite  makes  a  fortune;  while 
in  positions  in  which  a  Gentile  would  probably 
starve,  the  Jew  will  manage  to  keep  himself  and 
his  family  in  comfort.  In  but  few  countries  is 
the  contrast  of  wealth  and  indigence  among  the 
Jews  so  striking  as  in  Turkey.  On  one  side 
may  be  seen  prosperity  so  great  as  to  command 
undue  respect  for  its  possessors,  and  to  give  them 
a  local  influence  superior  to  that  of  any  of  the 
other  nationalities;  while,  hard  by,  one  sees 
poverty  and  wretchedness  of  the  most  sickening 
nature.  The  principal  cause  of  this  state  of 
affairs  is  the  limited  sphere  of  action  allotted  to, 
or  rather  adopted  by,  the  artisan  and  labouring 
classes  of  this  nation,  who  appear  to  evince  a 
repugnance  to  learning  any  trades  beyond  those 
followed  by  their  forebears  from  generation  to 
generation.  They  are  blacksmiths,  glaziers,  and 
boatmen,  fishermen,  porters,  and  scavengers,  but 
never  shoemakers,  tailors,  carpenters,  cabinet- 
makers, grooms,  gardeners,  or  farmers. 

In  places  where  the  Jews  form  large  com- 
munities, as  at  Salonica  and  in  the  suburb  of 
Hasskeuy  on  the  Golden  Horn,  their  quarter 
is  almost  as  overcrowded  as  a  London  slum, 
many  families  among  the  very  poor  occupying 
one  house  —  a  practice  which  is  quite  at  vari- 
ance with  the  habits  of  the  other  native  races. 


282  Turkish  Life 

The  Jewish  mahallah  of  an  Oriental  town  is 
naturally,  under  such  circumstances,  dirtier  and 
more  malodorous  than  the  Christian  and  Moslem 
quarters.  Yet  notwithstanding  the  unsanitary 
conditions  under  which  they  so  frequently  exist, 
these  Jews  of  the  labouring  class,  at  Salonica  at 
least,  are  on  the  whole  vigorous  and  healthy. 
The  comparatively  low  rate  of  mortality  among 
them  is  no  doubt  largely  due  to  the  fondness 
for  out-of-door  life  at  all  seasons  which  charac- 
terises the  community  generally,  every  species 
of  domestic  work  which  can  be  performed  al 
fresco  being  brought  into  the  courtyard,  or  to 
the  doorstep.  There  the  women  and  girls  do 
their  washing,  cooking,  making,  and  mending; 
the  mothers  rock  the  cradles  or  comb  their  little 
ones'  heads;  the  children  play,  quarrel,  and  in- 
dulge in  their  amiable  national  propensity  of 
stone-throwing;  and  the  men  and  youths  lounge, 
smoke,  and  gamble,  when  the  day's  labour  is  done. 
The  Jews  are  admittedly  the  most  oppressively 
noisy  of  all  the  nationalities  of  Turkey,  the  most 
ordinary  conversation  among  this  community 
being  carried  on  in  the  loud  tones  of  noisy 
dispute,  all  talking  at  once  in  such  an  elevated 
key  as  to  be  heard  at  a  considerable  distance. 
Of  a  gay  and  cheerful  disposition  these  children 
of  Israel  certainly  are,  notwithstanding  their 
poverty;  and  they  thoroughly  enjoy  their  Sab- 
baths and  festivals,    which   they   enliven   with 


The  Hebrew  Colonies        283 

their  national  music,  vocal  and  instrumental  — 
to  a  Western  ear,  horribly  discordant. 

The  Jews  of  Turkey,  both  Sephardim  and 
Ashkenazim,  differ  in  their  religious  beliefs  from 
the  Jews  of  the  West,  not  only  in  being  the 
most  bigoted  adherents  of  the  doctrines  of  the 
Talmud  to  be  found  anywhere,  but  also  in 
observing  many  rites  and  usages  peculiar  to 
themselves.  The  Talmud  is  believed  by  its 
devotees  to  be  the  perfection  of  divine  wisdom, 
the  consummation  of  all  moral  and  religious 
teaching,  an  emanation  of  the  Divine  Mind,  the 
absolute  and  unchangeable  law  delivered  to 
Moses,  and  transmitted,  unimpaired  and  un- 
abridged, through  the  mouths  of  holy  men,  who, 
in  later  times,  and  for  its  better  security,  finally 
reduced  it  to  writing.  The  Rabbis  are  the 
masters  of  this  sophistical  and  often  cabalistical 
learning,  which  includes,  intermixed  with  many 
beautiful  sentiments,  lofty  moral  principles,  and 
apt  illustrations,  many  degraded  superstitions 
and  meaningless  futilities.  The  Talmud  also 
inculcates  belief  in  the  Manichean  doctrine  of 
the  existence  of  good  and  evil  spirits,  who 
regulate  and  control  the  affairs  of  men.  The 
air  is  said  to  be  peopled  by  a  host  of  invisible 
malevolent  beings,  known  by  the  name  of 
Shedim,  a  word  calculated  to  inspire  fear  and 
horror,  and  never  pronounced,  the  euphem- 
ism, "  those  without,"  being  used  in  its  place. 


284  Turkish  Life 

In  fact,  one  may  truthfully  say  that  the  rab- 
binical writers  have  converted  the  pure  mono- 
theism of  Moses  and  the  prophets  into  a 
paganism  equal,  in  its  adoration  of  holy  men 
and  angels,  its  propitiation  of  demons  and  con- 
sequent magical  practices,  and  its  rigid  observ- 
ance of  fast,  feast,  and  Sabbath  days,  to  that 
which  is  practically  the  cult  of  the  most  ignorant 
members  of  the  Greek  Orthodox  and  Roman 
Catholic  Churches. 

As  might  be  expected  from  the  foregoing, 
the  Jews  of  Turkey  are,  in  the  matter  of  "  clean  " 
and  "unclean"  food,  particularly  strict,  and  the 
preparation  of  every  article  of  consumption  is 
regulated  by  a  variety  of  strange  and  compli- 
cated formulae.  Rules  relating  to  the  order  in 
which  certain  kinds  of  food  may  be  eaten  are 
also  strictly  observed.  Cheese,  milk,  or  butter, 
for  instance,  must  not  be  partaken  of  after  meat 
until  six  hours  have  elapsed,  though  meat  may 
be  eaten  immediately  after  such  dairy  produce. 
The  Mosaic  ordinances  with  respect  to  the 
fasts  and  feasts  as  contained  in  the  Pentateuch 
are  also  supplemented  by  numerous  other  ob- 
servances enjoined  by  the  traditions  of  the 
scribes.  This  Oral  Law  requires,  for  instance, 
that  every  single  day  appointed  as  a  holiday 
by  Moses  shall  be  supplemented  by  another, 
which  is  to  be  observed  with  equal  strictness; 
it  has  added  other  fasts  and  feasts  to  the  number 


The  Hebrew  Colonies        285 

commanded  by  ancient  law;  and  it  regulates 
every  detail  of  ritual  by  which  all  these  ordi- 
nances are  to  be  accompanied.  No  food  which 
has  not  been  specially  prepared  for  use  on  a 
feast-day  may  be  touched  on  that  day,  however 
great  the  necessity.  Eggs  laid  on  such  days 
may  not  be  eaten  till  the  morrow,  and,  if  in- 
advertently put  in  a  dish  or  basket  with  others 
which  have  been  so  "destined"  for  consump- 
tion on  the  festival,  the  whole  supply  becomes 
forbidden  food  for  that  day,  as  it  is  difficult  to 
distinguish  one  egg  from  another.  The  Sabbath 
is,  of  course,  most  rigorously  observed  by  these 
Oriental  Jews.  Clothes  which  have  been  worn 
on  working  days  can  never  again  form  part  of 
the  Sabbath  attire,  which  must  be  uncontami- 
nated  by  labour.  Tobacco  is  laid  aside,  for  to 
smoke  would  be  to  "touch  fire,"  which  is  un- 
lawful ;  pockets  —  or  what  may  do  duty  for 
them  on  other  festivals  —  are  emptied  of  every 
article,  even  to  the  handkerchief,  which,  if  not 
altogether  dispensed  with  for  twenty-four  hours, 
is  worn  round  the  waist  as  part  of  the  girdle, 
and  so  does  not  come  under  the  category  of 
"things  carried." 

The  wide  green  expanse  called  the  Meidan, 
or  common,  outside  the  western  walls  of  Sal- 
onica  presents  on  Friday  evenings  an  animated 
and  picturesque  spectacle.  Thither  resort  to- 
wards the  sunset  hour  numbers  of  Hebrew  men 


286  Turkish  Life 

and  youths  in  their  long  pelisses  of  various  hues, 
and,  standing  about  in  groups,  they  repeat  in 
concert  their  evening  prayers.  The  women  take 
no  part  in  these  open-air  devotions,  but,  dressed 
in  their  best,  await  on  their  door-steps  the 
return  of  the  men  of  the  family.  A  curious 
spectacle  may  also  be  witnessed  on  the  Day 
of  Atonement,  when,  in  addition  to  the  custom- 
ary affliction  of  their  souls  practised  by  the 
children  of  Israel  generally  on  that  day,  those 
dwelling  in  this  city  repair  in  crowds  to  the 
quay,  and  there  perform  the  ceremony  of  "  cast- 
ing their  sins  into  the  sea."  A  belief  is  also 
locally  current  among  the  lower  classes  that  their 
Messiah  will,  after  appearing  at  Jerusalem,  travel 
to  Salonica  by  water,  and  His  coming  is  on  this 
day  of  penitence  more  especially  awaited  by  the 
multitudes  thronging  the  long  quay. 

Regular  attendance  at  public  worship  is  not 
required  of  unmarried  girls;  but  the  mothers  in 
Israel  go  regularly  to  the  synagogue  on  Sabbaths 
and  festivals,  sitting  apart  in  a  gallery,  and 
screened  from  view  by  a  wooden  lattice.  The 
public  service  over,  the  remainder  of  the  day  is 
passed  in  feasting,  and  the  usual  amusements  of 
lounging,  promenading,  and  gossiping,  with 
jumboush  (music  and  singing)  in  the  evening. 
Their  promenades  do  not,  however,  exceed  the 
prescribed  "  Sabbath-day's  journey,"  namely, 
twelve  thousand  handbreadths,  or  two  thousand 


The  Hebrew  Colonies        287 

yards.  So  many  and  so  minute  are  the  direc- 
tions given  by  the  rabbinical  writers  for  the 
scrupulous  observance  of  the  proper  distance, 
that  a  whole  tractate  of  the  Mishna  is  devoted 
to  this  subject  alone. 

While  in  Europe,  generally,  and  also  in 
America,  conformity  with  the  civil  laws  of  the 
country  in  which  members  of  the  Jewish  nation 
are  domiciled  has  led  to  some  modifications  of 
the  Hebrew  marriage  law,  in  the  Ottoman  Em- 
pire, where  each  community  regulates  its  own 
internal  affairs  without  reference  to  the  civil  laws 
of  the  ruling  race,  the  Jews  have  maintained  their 
ancient  marriage  laws  intact,  and  all  the  cere- 
monies attending  their  fulfilment  are  scrupulously 
observed.  Their  customs  with  respect  to  mar- 
riage and  divorce  have,  indeed,  much  in  common 
with  those  of  their  Moslem  neighbours,  but  are, 
so  far  as  the  latter  are  concerned,  more  favour- 
able to  the  wife.  Early  marriages  are  the  rule 
among  all  Eastern  Jews,  though  the  obligation 
of  a  father  to  marry  his  children  as  soon  as  they 
attain  what  is  considered  a  proper  age  is  not 
elsewhere  so  rigidly  enforced  as  at  Jerusalem, 
where,  if  a  youth  of  twenty  remains  unwed,  he 
incurs  the  reproach  of  "causing  the  Sh'chinah 
to  depart  from  Israel."  Girls  are  usually  married 
from  the  age  of  fifteen  upwards,  the  youths  often 
become  husbands  at  eighteen.  These  early  mar- 
riages naturally  conduce  to  the  maintenance  of 


288  Turkish  Life 

patriarchal  customs;  for  the  young  couple,  being 
still  in  a  state  of  pupilage,  and  unable  to  provide 
for  their  wants,  must  remain  in  the  paternal 
home  of  the  husband;  and  it  is  no  uncommon 
thing  to  find  several  married  brothers  living  with 
their  wives  under  the  roof  of  their  father,  who 
delights  in  seeing  a  numerous  progeny  growing 
up  around  him. 

The  Oriental  Jews  do  not  recognise  the  law 
of  monogamy  laid  down  by  Rabbi  Gershom  in 
the  twelfth  century.  Polygamous  households 
are,  however,  rare,  and,  as  a  rule,  an  Oriental 
Jew  weds  a  second  wife  without  divorcing  the 
first  only  if  the  latter  is  childless  or  but  the  mother 
of  girls.  The  first  wife  is,  on  the  other  hand, 
entitled  to  refuse  to  receive  the  second  into  the 
house  in  which  she  has  been  in  the  habit  of  re- 
siding; and  monogamy  thus  practically  resolves 
itself  into  a  question  of  domestic  economy. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

NOMAD  LIFE 

THE  pastoral  Vlachs,  who,  as  mentioned  in  a 
previous  chapter,  form  so  large  a  section  of 
that  Macedonian  nationality,  are  to  be  met  with 
only  in  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  where  their  name 
has  become  in  the  districts  frequented  by  them  a 
synonym  for ' '  shepherd. "  The  passionate  fond- 
ness of  the  pastoral  Vlachs  for  a  free  and  open- 
air  life  has  given  rise  to  a  popular  belief  in  the 
country  that  if  a  shepherd  were  to  purchase  land 
and  attempt  to  turn  farmer,  he  would  speedily 
sicken  and  die  of  some  horrible  disease.  These 
people  pass  the  winter  on  the  plains  and  in  the 
valleys  of  Thessaly  and  Macedonia,  but  as  soon  as 
the  snows  have  melted  they  make  for  the  uplands, 
travelling  in  communities  with  their  wives  and 
children  and  their  united  flocks  and  herds,  often 
traversing  long  distances  in  search  of  fresh  pas- 
turage. When  on  the  road  they  make  use  of 
their  tents  of  black  goat's-hair  cloth,  and  carry 
all  their  goods  and  chattels  in  capacious  saddle- 
bags of  the  same  material  slung  across  the  backs 

x9 


290  Turkish  Life 

of  mules  or  ponies.  The  place  chosen  for  a  tem- 
porary encampment  is  sometimes  the  common 
found  on  the  outskirts  of  every  town  or  large 
village  in  Turkey.  I  remember  especially  the 
arrival  at  Salonica  of  one  of  these  wandering 
communities  which  remained  encamped  for  a 
week  under  the  picturesque  old  walls  of  the  city, 
pending  the  settlement  by  the  authorities  of  a 
dispute  with  reference  to  some  grazing-ground. 
While  the  men  pitched  the  cone-shaped  black 
tents  and  set  up  the  folds,  the  women  and  girls 
in  their  quaint  costumes  were  actively  em- 
ployed in  milking  the  flock,  nursing  the  babies,un- 
packing  the  pots  and  pans,  fetching  water,  and 
preparing  the  evening  meal.  Arrived  at  the 
pasturages,  which  they  rent  from  the  villages, 
or,  in  case  of  Crown  lands,  from  the  Inspector  of 
Fruits,  the  nomads  build  themselves  huts  or 
"shealings"  of  branches,  set  up  the  stania,  as 
their  sheepfolds  are  called,  and  prepare  for  some 
months  of  dairy  work,  in  which  the  women  and 
girls  perform  no  small  share. 

Over  the  extensive  highlands  of  Asiatic  Turkey 
wander  for  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  with  their 
sheep,  goats,  horses,  and  camels,  a  variety  of 
nomad  races — Yuruks  and  Circassians,  Tartars 
and  Turcomans,  Kurds  and  Gipsies — all  nomi- 
nally followers  of  the  Prophet  of  Islam,  but  each 
adhering  to  its  own  language  and  its  tribal  man- 
ners and  customs. 


Nomad  Life  291 

One  of  the  most  numerous  and  important  of 
the  races  who  roam  over  "the  wild  Karamanian 
waste"  are  the  Yuruks.  The  origin  of  these  v7 
nomads  is  still,  notwithstanding  the  researches 
of  ethnologists,  an  open  question.  The  Yuruks 
themselves,  strange  to  say,  possess  no  definite 
traditions  or  legends  of  a  former  habitat,  or  of 
the  occasion  of  their  migration  to  Turkey,  which 
might  give  a  clue  to  their  origin.  Their  name  is 
merely  derived  from  the  Turkish  verb  yurumek, 
"to  wander,"  while  their  language  is  but  a  di- 
alect of  Turkish.  They  are  a  fine,  active  race,  in- 
sensible to  fatigue  and  hardship,  tall  and  strong, 
usually  dark-haired,  but  with  lighter  complexions 
than  most  of  their  fellow-nomads,  and  a  pleasing 
expression  of  countenance.  As  among  the 
Kurds,  each  Yuruk  tribe  has  its  Agha,  or  chief, 
who  is  held  responsible  by  the  Government  for 
the  good  behaviour  of  his  subjects.  His  judicial 
decisions  are  accepted  as  final,  for  no  Yuruk 
would  think  of  referring  any  matter  in  dispute 
with  one  of  his  fellows  to  a  Turkish  tribunal. 

These  nomads  divide  the  year  into  three  sea- 
sons only,  spring,  summer,  and  winter,  which 
with  them  is  reckoned  as  three  months.  During 
this  season  many  of  these  nomads  adopt  a  semi- 
sedentary  life  among  ancient  Greek  ruins,  in  huts 
built  of  reeds  or  wickerwork,  or  in  their  own 
black  tents  pitched  on  one  of  the  many  wide 
plains   of   Asia  Minor.      Their    furniture  is  as 


292  Turkish  Life 

simple  as  it  is  portable.  The  high  wooden  pack- 
saddles  of  their  camels  are  ranged  round  the  walls, 
and  within  are  the  mattresses  of  the  family,  which 
are  rolled  up  in  the  daytime  and  spread  on  the 
ground  at  night.  Most  of  their  domestic  utensils 
— such  as  water-jars,  mortar  for  pounding  coffee, 
plates,  and  bowls  —  are  of  wood,  though  each 
tent  generally  possesses  in  addition  a  few  copper 
cooking-vessels,  which  are  handed  down  as  heir- 
looms from  generation  to  generation.  Their 
diet  is  most  frugal:  bread  made  into  a  sort  of 
bannock  baked  in  a  copper  platter  over  a  few 
embers,  with  vegetables,  milk,  cheese,  and  very 
little  meat,  constitutes  their  usual  fare,  and  wine 
they  altogether  abstain  from.  Coffee  is  their  fa- 
vourite beverage,  and  when  the  real  berry  is  not 
procurable  they  make  use  of  the  seed  of  a  native 
plant,  the  Gundelia  Tournefortia,  possessing 
aromatic  and  stomachic  properties. 

The  Yuruks  are  an  exceedingly  polygamous 
race,  the  number  of  their  wives  often  exceeding 
the  limit  of  four  fixed  by  Mohammed.  A  man 
of  average  wealth  marries  at  least  seven  help- 
mates, and  he  must  be  a  poor  man  indeed 
who  does  not  possess  three.  For  though  a 
plurality  of  wives  is  to  a  Turk  an  expensive 
luxury,  it  is  to  the  Yuruk  a  necessity  of  exist- 
ence. He  requires  a  certain  number  of  female 
"hands"  to  enable  him  to  pursue  his  calling 
of  flock-master,   camel-breeder,  or  other  pas- 


Nomad  Life  293 

toral  vocation,  and  as  social  usage  does  not 
permit  him  to  hire  such  u.  hands,"  he  secures 
their  services  by  marrying  them.  Each  wife, 
has,  however,  her  separate  tent,  and  her  special 
occupation.  The  care  of  the  flock  will  be  divided 
between  two  or  three,  each  tending  a  certain 
number  of  goats  or  broad-tailed  Karamanian 
sheep;  a  fourth  looks  after  the  camels;  a  fifth 
collects  fuel  and  fetches  water  for  the  family;  a 
sixth  makes  the  butter  and  cheese;  while  the 
seventh  weaves,  on  a  primitive  loom,  the  brightly 
coloured  and  substantial  rugs,  many  of  which 
find  their  way  to  this  country  under  such  names 
as  "Kelim,"  and  "Karamanian."  These  tribes- 
men are,  as  a  rule,  endogamous,  marrying  outside 
the  tribe  only  when  compelled  by  circumstances 
to  do  so.  For,  though  the  female  population 
greatly  exceeds  the  male,  it  does  not  always  suf- 
fice to  meet  the  demand  for  wives,  and  a  Yuruk 
will  not  scruple,  at  a  pinch,  to  steal  a  woman 
from  some  neighbouring  tribe,  and  marry  her. 
It  is  customary  for  a  Yuruk  paterfamilias  to  re- 
ceive a  price  for  his  daughter,  paid  either  in  coin 
or  in  cattle — a  survival  of  the  ancient  widespread 
practice  of  bride-purchase  which  still  prevails  in 
many  localities  where  patriarchal  customs  and 
economic  conditions  render  a  woman's  labour 
of  value  to  her  family.  At  the  betrothal  cere- 
mony a  lamb  is  killed  and  eaten,  and  em- 
broidered handkerchiefs  are   exchanged  by  the 


294  Turkish  Life 

contracting  parties,  the  rejoicings  observed  on 
such  occasions  consisting  chiefly  in  tambourine 
playing  and  in  the  peculiarly  Oriental  diversion 
of  firing  off  small  arms.  The  wedding  festivities, 
however,  extend  over  several  days,  and  are  en- 
livened with  music  and  dancing,  while  the  youths 
of  the  community  vie  with  each  other  in  wrest- 
ling and  other  athletic  sports.  But  a  ceremony 
so  often  repeated  must,  for  the  husband  and  his 
family  at  least,  one  would  think,  lose  in  time 
much  of  its  zest. 

Owing  to  the  rude  lives  led  by  the  Yuruks  in- 
fant mortality  is  very  great  among  them.  Nearly 
every  woman  has  a  large  family,  but  seldom  suc- 
ceeds in  rearing  more  than  two  or  three  of  her 
children.  Hence  we  have  the  survival  of  the  fit- 
test; and  the  healthy  outdoor  life  of  the  tribes- 
men contributes  to  the  high  physical  qualities  of 
their  race.  Morally,  too,  the  Yuruks  rank  high 
among  their  fellow-nomads.  They  are  an  ex- 
ceedingly peaceful  and  law-abiding  people,  form- 
ing a  great  contrast  to  their  neighbours,  the 
Afshahs,  Kurds,  and  Circassians;  and  the  Turks 
look  upon  them  as  the  policemen  of  the  mount- 
ains, finding  them  always  ready  to  give  infor- 
mation concerning  the  malpractices  of  the  more 
predatory  tribes. 

Notwithstanding  the  wild,  wandering  life  led 
by  the  Yuruks,  they  are  by  no  means  cut  off 
from  all  intercourse  with  the  outer  world,  and 


Nomad  Life  295 

while  on  the  mountain  grazings  they  have  their 
regular  visitors,  who  arrive  at  stated  times.  The 
dealer  in  goats  and  sheep  comes  in  the  spring, 
pitches  his  tent  in  a  central  position  among  the 
encampments,  smokes  his  narghile,  with  the  chief 
men  seated  around  him  on  cushions,  the  coffee- 
pot simmering  meanwhile  among  the  te^ek  peats, 
and  buys  from  all  who  are  willing  to  sell.  The 
travelling  tinker,  too — the  great  importer  of  news 
— makes  his  regular  summer  round  among  the 
tribes,  settling  for  a  few  days  at  each  encamp- 
ment, with  his  mule,  his  bellows,  and  his  appren- 
tice, and  mends  with  nitre  the  quaintly  shaped 
coffee-pots  and  household  copper  utensils,  re- 
ceiving in  return  butter  and  cheese.  Visits  are 
also  periodically  expected  from  the  wool  mer- 
chants, skin  dealers,  and  the  public  circumciser, 
who  performs  on  the  young  Yuruks  the  rite 
which  admits  them  into  the  ranks  of  the  faithful. 
And,  lastly,  there  arrives  also  a  less  welcome  vis- 
itor, the  tax-collector,  to  gather  in  the  cattle-tax. 
He  also  pitches  his  tent,  and  is  courteously  re- 
ceived by  the  leading  men.  As  often  as  not, 
however,  he  has  considerable  trouble  in  levying 
the  legal  dues;  for  when  the  shepherds  have 
warning  of  his  advent  they  hide  a  portion  of 
their  flocks  in  caves  and  mountain  hollows. 

It  is  also  no  unusual  thing  for  a  trader  in  some 
provincial  town  within  reach  of  their  pasturages 
to  furnish  a  band  of  Yuruks  with  flocks  on  an 


296  Turkish  Life 

agreement  to  supply  him  with  a  fixed  quantity 
of  milk,  cheese,  and  butter,  the  shepherds  re- 
taining for  themselves,  besides  the  remainder  of 
the  dairy  produce,  the  wool,  and  certain  other 
products.  Under  such  an  arrangement  a  nomad 
band  soon  gets  together  a  flock  of  its  own,  and 
in  time  pays  back  the  lender.  The  Yuruks  are 
also  great  camel-breeders,  and  produce  a  cross- 
breed known  as  the  Toulon  camel,  from  the 
Bactrian  and  Syrian  strains,  highly  esteemed  for 
mountaineering  work,  as  it  is  able  to  withstand 
equally  the  great  heats  of  the  plain  and  the  snows 
of  high  altitudes. 

Attempts  have  been  made  by  the  Turkish 
authorities  to  induce  the  Yuruks  to  settle  in 
villages  of  their  own  on  the  lower  slopes  of 
the  Taurus,  where  mosques  have  been  built  for 
them,  and  hodjas  appointed  to  minister  to  their 
spiritual  needs.  But,  though  nominally  Moslems, 
the  Yuruks  disdain  both  mosque  and  hodja. 
Their  religion  is  purely  pastoral,  and  they  wor- 
ship only  in  the  open  air.  Sacred  trees  by  the 
wayside  are  hung  with  votive  offerings,  such  as 
wooden  spoons  and  coloured  rags,  for  the  cure 
of  diseases,  and  close  by  is  a  heap  of  stones, 
to  which  every  passer-by  contributes  a  pebble. 
When  a  Yuruk  dies,  his  relatives  carry  his  body 
to  one  of  these  open-air  temples,  recite  over  it  a 
passage  from  the  Koran,  and  take  from  the  pile 
a  few  stones  to  place  above  the  lonely  grave  of 


Nomad  Life  297 

their  fellow-tribesman,  which  is  generally  dug 
near  a  path  in  order  that  the  deceased  may  have 
the  benefit  of  the  prayers  of  passers-by. 

The  superstitions  of  these  simple  people  are 
few,  and  are  not  of  a  gruesome  character.  They 
believe  in  the  existence  of  peris,  who  inhabit 
streams  and  mountain  ravines,  but  in  no  su- 
pernal beings  of  a  harmful  character,  and  mani- 
fest no  special  dread  of  the  classic  ruins  held  by 
other  races  to  be  haunted.  They  repose,  how- 
ever, unbounded  faith  in  the  efficacy  of  magical 
rites,  and  have  among  them  sorcerers  who  prac- 
tise divination,  and  who  by  "  water-gazing  "  and 
other  methods  are  able  to  ascertain  the  where- 
abouts of  a  stolen  sheep  or  goat.  They  also 
cherish  a  firm  belief  in  the  power  of  the  evil  eye, 
and  an  equally  deep-rooted  conviction  of  the 
antidotal  action  of  a  bunch  of  garlic  hung  up  in 
the  tent  to  ward  off  its  malign  influence. 

The  Tartars  now  inhabiting  Turkey  belong  to 
two  classes  —  the  tribes  who  have  wandered  for 
centuries  past  over  the  highlands  of  Asia  Minor, 
and  the  immigrants  into  European  Turkey  from 
the  Khanate  of  the  Crimea  on  its  annexation  by 
Russia.  Among  the  former  tribes,  not  the  least 
interesting  are  the  Afshahs  and  Bosdans,  who 
are  scattered  throughout  Eastern  Turkey  and 
Northern  Persia.  They  are  a  short,  swarthy- 
skinned  people  of  Mongolian  type,  with  round, 
beardless  faces,   high   cheek-bones,  and   small, 


298  Turkish  Life 

narrow  eyes.  The  dress  of  their  women,  who 
are  somewhat  fat  and  dumpy,  is,  in  some  of  the 
tribes,  very  gorgeous,  and  of  the  usual  Oriental 
style — baggy  trousers,  embroidered  coats  of  vari- 
ous lengths,  earrings  of  gold,  and  frontlets  of 
coins.  They  are,  however,  unveiled  save  during 
the  first  twelve  months  of  their  married  life. 
The  great  peculiarity  of  their  costume  is  the 
long  thick  tail  of  false  hair,  or,  rather,  of  plaited 
silk  or  cotton  dyed  the  colour  of  their  natural 
locks,  which  is  fastened  to  the  head-dress,  and 
hangs  below  the  waist.  On  these  tails  they 
hang  a  variety  of  little  ornaments,  generally  of 
silver,  and  they  also  pierce  one  of  their  nostrils, 
and  wear  in  the  hole  a  clove  or  metal  stud, 
which  gives  them  a  very  odd  appearance.  The 
Afshah  women,  like  the  rest  of  their  nomad 
sisters,  are  extremely  industrious.  They  are  also 
great  beekeepers,  and  carry  their  hives,  which 
are  long  segments  of  tree-trunks  hollowed  out, 
with  them  in  their  mountain  wanderings.  The 
wax  and  honey,  after  being  boiled  together,  are 
made  into  cakes  and  used  as  food. 

The  encampments  of  these  Tartar  tribes, 
which,  like  those  of  the  Yuruks  and  Turcomans, 
are  often  among  ancient  ruins  and  tombs,  are 
guarded  by  magnificent  dogs  of  a  breed  resem- 
bling the  St.  Bernard.  Though  fed  chiefly  on 
buttermilk,  they  are  extremely  ferocious,  and 
will  allow  no  stranger  to  approach  their  posts. 


Nomad  Life  299 

The  reed  huts,  for  which  in  winter  the  Tartars 
often  exchange  their  tents,  are  very  ingeniously 
contrived,  and  consist  of  two  rooms,  with  a  byre 
between,  in  which  the  calves  are  kept  at  night. 
The  interior  of  the  walls,  after  being  plastered 
with  teqek  and  limewashed,  are  decorated  in 
rude  patterns  with  a  preparation  of  the  henna 
with  which  the  girls  adorn  their  fingers  and 
toes. 

The  Kurds  are  to  be  found  scattered  all  over 
the  eastern  highlands  of  Asia  Minor,  from  the 
Taurus  to  the  Caucasus,  as  well  as  in  Kurdistan 
proper,  where  the  population  is  equally  mixed. 
Under  the  name  of  Kurd,  however,  two  distinct 
races  are  included,  who  form  as  great  a  contrast 
to  each  other  in  physiognomy  as  in  character 
and  mode  of  life.  The  one  race  is  warlike,  full 
of  vivacity,  and  for  the  most  part  nomad ;  while 
the  other  is  agricultural,  pacific,  and  not  remark- 
able for  intelligence.  The  peasant  Kurds  are 
said  to  outnumber  the  warrior  in  the  proportion 
of  four  or  five  to  one.  The  latter  are  estimated 
at  about  thirteen  thousand  families,  of  whom  ten 
thousand  are  nomad,  the  remainder  being  settled 
in  the  towns  and  villages.  All  these  warrior 
Kurds  are  divided  into  tribes,  each  of  which 
consists  of  the  family  of  the  chief  and  a  number 
of  other  families  more  or  less  intimately  con- 
nected with  it.  In  their  encampments  the  tent 
of  the  chief  is  conspicuous  among  the  others  by 


300  Turkish  Life 

its  greater  size,  for  it  constitutes  the  council- 
chamber,  court  of  justice,  and  usual  meeting- 
place  of  the  elders  of  the  community,  and  in  it 
general  hospitality  is  exercised.  Clan  feeling  and 
devotion  to  their  chief  are  the  leading  character- 
istics of  these  wild  people.  The  head  of  the 
tribe  is  not,  however,  an  arbitrary  ruler ;  for 
the  voices  of  the  elders  have  great  weight  in  the 
councils  of  the  clan.  The  women  also  take  a 
lively  interest  in  the  social  and  political  affairs  of 
their  own  clan,  and  are  acquainted  with  all  that 
concern  it  —  its  feuds,  plans,  and  conspiracies,  in 
which  they  are,  indeed,  often  the  moving  spirits. 
As  enterprising  and  indefatigable  as  the  men  of 
their  race,  they  are  ever  on  the  alert,  and  ready 
to  leap  to  the  saddle,  where,  though  not  elegant 
riders,  they  are  quite  at  home,  and  able  to  keep 
up  with  their  husbands  in  their  adventurous 
wanderings.  Kurdish  women  do  not,  like  the 
generality  of  Moslem  women,  veil  themselves 
when  out-of-doors,  or  in  the  presence  of  the 
other  sex,  though  when  on  the  march  they  may 
partially  screen  their  faces  with  a  kerchief.  But 
notwithstanding  this,  which  for  an  Oriental  peo- 
ple, is  great  freedom  of  manners,  these  nomad 
women  conduct  themselves  with  the  utmost 
dignity  and  propriety,  and  their  standard  of 
morality  is  exceptionally  high  among  the  races 
of  the  country. 
A  tribe   on  the   march  to  a  fresh  camping- 


Nomad  Life  301 

ground  conveys  its  baggage  on  the  backs  of 
bullocks,  which  often  carry  in  addition  two  or 
three  children  and  the  cradle,  if  the  mother  has 
not  strapped  this,  with  its  latest  inmate,  to  her 
own  back.  Accompanying  the  other  women 
may  be  seen  several  Amazonian  figures  appar- 
ently in  charge  of  the  party,  and  much  more 
responsible  for  its  safety  than  the  men,  who  ride 
or  saunter  along  carrying  only  their  arms,  a 
heavy  mace  and  sword  hanging  from  their 
girdles,  and  a  leathern  buckler  at  their  backs. 
For  beyond  guarding  their  sheep  on  the  moun- 
tain pastures,  the  men  of  the  tribe  take  no  part 
in  the  work  connected  with  them,  all  of  which 
devolves  upon  the  women.  Kurds  seldom  eat 
the  flesh  of  their  flocks,  which  they  consider  too 
valuable  for  consumption,  but  content  them- 
selves for  the  most  part  with  the  dairy  produce, 
milk,  cheese,  butter,  and  curds,  with  thin  cakes 
baked  in  the  embers,  and  a  kind  of  pilaf  made 
from  wheat  instead  of  rice.  Butter  is  churned  in 
very  primitive  fashion  by  the  Kurdish  nomads. 
A  large  sheep-skin  filled  with  milk  is  suspended 
horizontally  by  two  cords,  and  to  this  apparatus 
the  girls  impart  a  regular  swinging  movement, 
which  in  time  converts  its  contents  into  butter. 
Their  cheese,  which  is  called  djadjik  and  is 
much  relished,  contains  some  savoury  herb  pos- 
sessing a  flavour  not  unlike  that  of  onions. 
The    Kurds    generally,    both    sedentary  and 


302  Turkish  Life 

nomad,  have  the  reputation  of  being  but  lax 
followers  of  the  faith  they  nominally  profess ;  so 
much  so,  indeed,  as  to  have  given  rise  to  the 
proverb  that  "a  saint  cannot  come  out  of 
Kurdistan."  Indifferent,  however,  as  they  may 
be  to  the  dogmas  of  Islam,  they  are,  like  all 
highlanders,  extremely  superstitious;  and  besides 
the  djins  and  other  magical  beings  in  whose 
existence  they,  in  common  with  their  neigh- 
bours of  other  races,  implicitly  believe,  another 
class  of  uncanny  visitants  whom  they  term  sheyts 
(the  Turkish  shehid,  "martyr")  excites  the  awe 
and  dread  of  these  mountain  people.  These 
sheyts  are  the  apparitions — I  will  not  say  ghosts, 
for,  like  all  Oriental  "bogies,"  they  rise  in  the 
body — of  Moslems  who  have  died  fighting  for 
Islam,  and  at  whose  tombs,  as  at  those  of  Mo- 
hammedan saints  generally,  miracles  are  believed 
to  be  wrought.  When  "martyrs"  rise  from 
their  graves  and  appear  thus  to  mortals  —  which 
they  are  said  occasionally  to  do  in  crowds  —  it  is 
looked  upon  as  a  sign  of  some  important  event. 
The  Kurds  appear,  too,  to  credit  them  with 
habits  similar  to  their  own,  and  look  upon  them 
as  a  kind  of  fluctuating  population  as  nomadic  as 
themselves. 

Besides  the  Turcoman  tribes,  whose  wander- 

,J     ing  lives   differ  little  from  those   of  the  races 

above  described,  numerous  bands  of  Circassians 

are  to  be  met  with  in  the  northern  and  eastern 


Nomad  Life  3°3 

provinces  of  Asia  Minor  engaged  in  pursuits 
either  pastoral  or  predatory,  and  enjoy  a  some- 
what evil  reputation  among  their  fellow-nomads. 
Being  less  under  surveillance  than  their  brother 
immigrants  settled  in  European  Turkey,  they  are 
able  to  evade  with  impunity  the  law  forbidding 
the  sale  of  their  daughters,  and  numbers  of  girls 
belonging  to  these  tribes  are  said  to  be  pur- 
chased every  year  by  the  dealers  always  on  the 
lookout  for  such  merchandise. 

The  Gipsies  may  be  said  to  form  a  sort  of 
connecting  link  between  the  nomads  of  the 
Balkan  Peninsula  and  those  of  Asia  Minor,  as 
they  are  to  be  found  in  every  part  of  the  Ot- 
toman Empire,  over  which  some  tribes  wander 
from  end  to  end.  The  physical  features,  charac- 
ter, and  occupations  of  the  Turkish  Gipsies  are 
much  the  same  as  those  of  their  brethren  of 
Western  Europe,  while  their  evil  propensities  are, 
perhaps,  for  the  most  part,  even  more  conspicu- 
ous. Although  they  are  nominally  Moslems  like 
the  Turks,  the  Turks  entertain  for  this  certainly 
least  worthy  section  of  their  nomad  neighbours 
sentiments  of  the  profoundest  horror  and  dis- 
gust; and  the  contempt  in  which  they  are  held 
by  pious  Mohammedans  is,  indeed,  such  as  to 
debar  them  from  the  charity  so  largely  practised 
by  the  followers  of  the  Prophet,  and  never  re- 
fused to  either  Christian  or  Jew.  A  tradition  is 
current  among  both  Turks  and  Bulgarians  that, 


304 


Turkish  Life 


when  religions  were  distributed  to  the  various 
nations  of  the  earth,  the  recipients  engraved  their 
respective  creeds  on  wood,  stone,  or  metal,  or 
wrote  them  in  books.  The  Gipsies,  however, 
with  their  characteristic  thriftlessness,  wrote  their 
canons  on  the  leaves  of  a  cabbage,  which  was 
shortly  afterwards  found  and  eaten  by  a  donkey. 
"  And  this,"  say  they,  "  is  why  the  Chenguins 
have  neither  religion  nor  God  of  their  own." 


CHAPTER  XV 

BRIGAND   LIFE 

BRIGANDAGE  has  from  time  immemorial, 
and  more  especially  perhaps  during  the 
last  century  and  a  half,  played  an  important 
part  in  the  social  and  political  life  of  Turkey, 
and  the  present  anarchic  condition  of  Macedonia 
offers  every  facility  for  the  pursuit  of  this  ad- 
venturous calling.  The  brigand  bands  that 
infest  many  districts  of  Turkey,  both  Asiatic 
and  European,  are,  strange  to  say,  hardly  at  all 
recruited,  as  might  be  expected,  from  the  no- 
mad tribes  before  described,  but  present  a  motley 
gathering  of  outlaws  of  all  the  races  of  the 
country,  Moslem  as  well  as  Christian,  one  band 
frequently  containing  representatives  of  three 
or  four.  Some  adopt  the  profession  because 
they  find  it  congenial,  or  from  political  motives; 
others  take  to  the  hills  to  evade  the  strong  arm 
of  the  law  or  the  tyranny  of  the  Turkish  au- 
thorities, or  it  may  be  to  carry  out  some  pri- 
vate scheme  of  revenge.  Disbanded  Albanian 
20 

305 


306  Turkish  Life 

Bashibazouks,  too,  during  or  after  a  campaign 
frequently  adopt  this  calling.  The  transition  from 
shepherd  to  brigand  is  also  by  no  means  diffi- 
cult; and  not  infrequently  a  young  Macedonian 
or  Albanian  peasant,  weary  of  the  monotony 
of  field-work,  will,  just  for  the  sake  of  a  little 
change  and  adventure,  join  a  brigand  band,  re- 
turning home  again  with  a  small  nest-egg  trans- 
ferred from  the  pocket  of  a  Turkish  Effendi  or 
wealthy  Bulgarian  Tchorbadji  to  his  own.  But 
woe  betide  him  if  he  is  discovered,  and  the  au- 
thorities want  some  one  to  make  an  example 
of !  To  the  bloody  tower  at  Salonica  he  is 
forthwith  conducted,  to  remain  indefinitely  in 
that  old  Genoese  prison,  so  cheerful  of  aspect 
without,  so  dismal  within. 

Various  instances  are  on  record  of  women, 
Greek  and  Bulgarian,  having  also  adopted  the 
hard  and  perilous  life  of  brigands.  Dressed  in 
masculine  garb,  they  for  years  successfully  con- 
cealed their  sex  from  their  comrades,  and  took 
part  in  all  their  exploits.  About  thirty  years 
ago  a  Greek  woman  of  Lower  Macedonia,  under 
the  name  of  Spano  ("  the  Beardless")  Vangheli, 
was  for  a  considerable  time  at  the  head  of  a 
notorious  band  of  freebooters,  and  held  out  stub- 
bornly long  after  the  majority  of  the  brigand 
bands  in  her  district  had  given  in  their  sub- 
mission. To  quote  the  words  of  a  contem- 
porary folk  ballad  — 


Brigand  Life  307 

Spand  Vangheli  still  holds  out,  and  will  not  pledge  his  word, 
For  with  his  arms  girt  he  would  die,  and  wielding  his  good 

sword; 
But  he  at  length  submitted  too,  and  'fore  Mehmet  Pasha, 
Up  there  within  the  fortress  made  his  humble  temend, 

i.  e.,  made  his  obeisance.  A  photograph  of  this 
heroine  in  my  possession  represents  her  as  a 
sturdily  built  woman,  plain  of  feature  and  of 
swarthy  complexion,  dressed  in  the  usual  out- 
law's garb  of  dirty  calico  kilt  and  shirt,  cloth 
vest  and  leggings,  and  wearing,  suspended 
round  her  neck  by  silver  chains,  the  insignia 
of  chieftainship  —  a  large  silver  disk  with  the 
St.  George  and  Dragon  pictured  on  it  in  relief. 
The  wives  of  Bulgarian  brigands  have  also  often 
accompanied  their  husbands  to  the  mountains 
in  man's  attire,  fared  like  the  rest  of  the  out- 
laws, and  often  shared  their  fate;  and  love  of 
adventure  seems  occasionally  to  have  led  un- 
married women  of  this  race  to  adopt  this  calling, 
which  is  by  no  means  in  greater  disrepute  among 
the  Bulgarian  than  among  the  Greek  peasants. 
After  a  few  years,  if  they  escaped  capture  or 
death  in  their  encounters  with  the  Turkish  troops, 
these  heroines,  whose  exploits  are  celebrated  in 
numerous  folk-ballads,  usually  returned  home, 
married,  and  settled  down  to  domestic  life. 

A  considerable  section  of  the  folk-literature  of 
the  Balkan  peoples,  both  in  prose  and  verse, 
deals  with  the  exploits  of  the  more  famous  — 


308  Turkish  Life 

or  infamous  —  brigands  under  their  various 
aspects  of  patriots  rebelling  against  Turkish 
tyranny,  rapacious  cut-throats,  or  jovial  and 
humorous  Robin  Hoods;  though  the  qualities 
attributed  to  many  of  these  robber  chiefs  and 
their  following  would  seem  in  many  instances 
to  be  somewhat  at  variance  with  their  actions. 
But  in  one's  estimate  of  brigands,  as  of  other 
historical  characters,  much  depends,  no  doubt, 
upon  the  point  of  view. 

In  European  Turkey,  at  least,  brigandage  still 
retains  something  of  its  former  political  charac- 
ter, and  is  most  in  evidence  when  events  threaten 
to  lead  to  hostilities  between  Turkey  and  her 
Christian  neighbours.  It  is,  indeed,  often  diffi- 
cult to  draw  the  line  between  political  insurgents 
and  bond  fide  brigands,  these  roles  being  eas- 
ily interchangeable,  and  consequently  frequently 
interchanged.  The  band,  for  instance,  which 
captured  Miss  Stone  in  the  autumn  of  1901, 
appears  to  have  been  comprised  chiefly  of 
Bulgarian  desperadoes  well  supplied  with  mod- 
ern arms  and  ammunition,  and  their  object  in 
holding  that  lady  to  ransom,  at  such  inconven- 
ience and  danger  to  themselves,  far  into  the 
winter,  was  evidently  to  obtain  funds  for  the 
Bulgarian  Revolutionary  Committees. 

The  kheradjis,  as  the  owners  and  drivers  of 
the  pack  mules  and  horses  are  termed  who 
convey  goods  and  also  travellers  by  road  from 


Brigand  Life  309 

town  to  town,  and  the  Tartar  couriers  who  in 
some  districts  carry  the  mails,  and  are  entrusted 
with  the  transport  of  sums  of  money,  offer  great 
temptations  to  brigands,  and  are  specially  liable 
to  their  attacks.  The  former  enjoy  generally 
a  reputation  for  trustworthiness,  and  often  risk 
their  lives  in  defence  of  the  property  entrusted 
to  them.  Occasionally,  however,  they  no  doubt 
find  it  advantageous  to  themselves  and  their 
customers,  if  not,  indeed,  necessary  to  the  con- 
duct of  their  business,  to  be  on  good  terms 
with  the  mountain  gentry,  and  pay  for  immun- 
ity from  interference  by  supplying  them  with 
ammunition,  tobacco,  and  other  necessaries,  and 
perhaps  also  occasionally  by  playing  into  their 
hands,  as  in  the  case  of  Miss  Stone,  whose 
kheradji  appears  to  have  been  in  league  with 
her  captors.  Brigand  bands  have  also  their  spies 
or  accomplices  among  the  peasants,  or  even 
residing  in  the  towns  or  cities  as  reputable 
burghers,  who  keep  them  informed  as  to  the 
movements  of  persons  of  importance,  and  also 
give  them  timely  notice  of  any  projected  military 
or  police  expedition  against  them.  Their  fre- 
quent change  of  domicile,  however,  often  makes 
it  necessary  for  them  to  do  their  own  reconnoit- 
ring, and  they  venture  disguised,  even  as  women 
on  occasion,  into  the  towns  and  villages.  Not 
infrequently,  too,  they  find  protectors  in  high 
places,    who,   for  various  reasons,  assist  them 


310  Turkish  Life 

to  evade  the  arm  of  the  law.  On  one  occasion 
a  brigand  band  had  taken  up  its  quarters  at 
an  isolated  farm  situated  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Khortiach,  a  few  miles  from  Salonica,  with  the 
object,  it  was  supposed,  of  carrying  off  a  mem- 
ber of  one  of  the  wealthy  families  then  occupy- 
ing their  country  residences  at  Kallameria,  the 
bathing  suburb  of  that  city.  The  presence  of 
these  suspicious  characters  was  observed  and 
reported  to  the  authorities,  who  sent  early  on 
the  following  morning  a  force  of  {aptiehs  to 
arrest  them.  They,  however,  found  the  birds 
flown,  the  Albanian  owner  of  the  farm  -a 
member  of  the  Medjliss,  or  municipal  council, 
and  consequently  privy  to  the  intentions  of  the 
authorities  —  having,  it  was  generally  believed, 
found  means  in  the  interval  to  warn  his  guests 
of  their  danger. 

The  troops  specially  engaged  in  the  suppres- 
sion of  brigandage  are  also,  indeed,  by  no  means 
free  from  suspicion  of  frequently  establishing  a 
modus  vivendi  with  the  brigands,  and  partici- 
pating in  their  ill-gotten  gains.  Men  whose 
pay  is  chronically  at  least  six  months  in  arrear 
can  hardly  be  expected  to  be  incorruptible,  and 
officials,  civil  and  military,  are  themselves  more 
or  less  in  league  with  criminals,  as  the  following 
illustration  will  show.  A  brigand  chief  who, 
some  years  ago,  had  made  himself  master  of 
the  road   between  Vodhena   and   Monastir  had 


Brigand  Lite  311 

previously  been  an  inmate  of  one  of  the  prisons 
of  Salonica,  from  which  he  was  allowed  to 
escape  with  a  sufficient  number  of  comrades 
to  form  alone  a  very  respectable  band.  A  little 
fable,  related  by  an  old  Turk  to  a  friend  of 
mine  in  this  connection,  also  well  illustrates  the 
point  of  view  of  those  whose  business  it  is  to 
suppress  these  freebooters.  A  certain  tom- 
cat, when  about  to  set  out  on  his  pilgrimage, 
appointed  his  son  deputy  rat-and-mouse-catcher 
to  the  establishment  of  which  he  had  been 
for  some  years  a  highly  regarded  inmate.  On 
his  return  from  the  holy  cities,  the  old  cat  was 
met  on  the  road  by  young  Tommy,  who  pre- 
sented an  emaciated  and  wretched  appearance. 
"  How  is  this,  my  son  ?"  inquired  his  shocked 
parent.  "I  left  thee  in  a  comfortable  home 
with  a  goodly  supply  of  rats  and  mice;  thou 
hast  now  the  air  of  a  homeless  beggar.*'  "  My 
father,  anxious  to  prove  myself  thy  worthy 
successor,  I  speedily  destroyed  every  rat  and 
mouse  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  the  people 
of  the  house,  having  no  further  use  for  me, 
turned  me  adrift,  as  you  see."  "  Ah,  my  son/' 
sighed  the  old  cat,  "  I  in  my  time  killed  only 
enough  vermin  to  justify  my  existence  in  the 
konak;  thou  hast  destroyed  our  livelihood.  Let 
this  be  a  lesson  to  thee  in  future,  to  beware  of 
too  much  zeal,  and  to  '  live  and  let  live."' 

Now  and   again,  however,  when   these  ma- 


3i2  Turkish  Life 

rauders  appear  to  be  more  numerous  and  more 
audacious  than  usual,  a  military  brigand-hunting 
expedition  will  be  organised  by  some  energetic 
commander-in-chief,  and  war  against  them 
carried  on  in  grim  earnest.  A  large  force  is 
then  put  in  motion,  no  fewer  than  one  thousand 
infantry  and  two  hundred  cavalry  being  some- 
times considered  necessary  to  surround  and 
capture  a  numerous  and  desperate  band.  In 
barbarous  times  barbarous  methods  must  be 
used,  and  the  heads  of  the  outlaws  are  invari- 
ably cut  off  and  carried  to  headquarters.  When 
out  for  a  Sunday  afternoon  walk  on  the  road 
between  Salonica  and  its  bathing  suburb,  I  have 
more  than  once  met  vehicles  full  of  soldiers 
carrying  by  the  hair,  or  in  sacks,  to  the  resi- 
dence of  the  Military  Governor,  these  bloody 
trophies,  which  would  subsequently  be  ex- 
posed to  view  on  the  gate  of  the  Government 
House,  or  the  Citadel,  as  a  terror  to  evil-doers. 

The  hiding-places  of  the  brigands,  which  the 
Greeks  call  lemeria,  are  usually  caves  and  hol- 
lows among  rocks,  or,  if  these  are  not  avail- 
able, they  build  themselves  rough  shelters  with 
branches  of  trees.  This  term,  lemtria,  is  derived 
from  two  Greek  words  signifying  "all  day,"  as 
it  is  in  the  daytime  that  they  are  chiefly  occupied. 
In  none  of  these  do  the  brigands,  as  a  rule,  re- 
main for  many  days  together,  but  continually 
move   from  one  to  another,  always  by  night, 


Brigand  Life  3[3 

avoiding  all  roads  and  frequented  paths,  and  often 
covering  great  distances  between  sunset  and 
dawn.  "A  klepht's  march"  is,  indeed,  proverbial 
in  the  country.  When  encamped,  sentries  are 
posted  at  a  distance  in  all  directions  to  give  warn- 
ing of  the  approach  of  enemies,  and  changed  fre- 
quently ;  and  vigilant  watch  is  also  constantly  kept 
at  the  lemeri.  The  discipline  of  silence  is  rigidly 
observed  by  the  members  of  a  band  under  all  cir- 
cumstances, especially  when  on  the  march;  all 
unnecessary  conversation  is  avoided,  and  com- 
munications are  made  in  whispers.  When  a 
sentry  is  to  be  relieved  at  night,  the  brigand  who 
is  to  take  his  place  is  wakened  by  being  gently 
shaken  by  the  shoulder,  a  low,  hissing  sound 
being  made  at  the  same  time  to  remind  him,  on 
being  thus  summoned  suddenly  from  dreamland, 
where  he  is,  and  what  is  expected  of  him.  The 
brigands  lie  down  to  rest,  if  not  like  the  warders 
of  Branksome  Hall  "in  corselet  laced,"  at  least 
fully  dressed,  and  with  weapons  girt — pistols 
and  poniards  at  their  waists,  and  rifle  by  their 
side,  blackened  so  as  to  reflect  no  glint  of  light 
from  stock  or  barrel.  Shod  with  heelless  Al- 
banian shoes,  with  pointed,  turned-up  toes,  or 
with  a  kind  of  moccasin  made  from  a  piece  of 
hide  with  the  hair  side  inwards,  the  klepht  glides 
noiselessly  to  his  post.  The  rest  of  his  garb  is 
also  rendered  as  inconspicuous  as  possible.  The 
Albanian  kapa,  a  cloak  of  white  felt,  much  worn 


314  Turkish  Life 

by  the  country  folk,  is  often  discarded  in  favour 
of  one  made  of  black  goat's-hair  cloth,  which 
serves  also  as  bed  and  blanket;  and  a  black  or 
dark-coloured  handkerchief  is  usually  bound 
round  the  head  in  lieu  of  the  red  or  white  fez  or 
sheep-skin  cap  of  the  peasantry.  The  fustanella, 
or  full  kilt — the  starched  rustle  of  which  is  music 
in  the  ears  of  an  Albanian  or  Greek  dandy — and 
the  flowing  sleeves  of  white  calico  of  the  Alban- 
ians and  Greeks,  if  still  worn,  are  limp,  and  of  so 
grimy  a  hue  as  to  be  indistinguishable.  "  A  reg- 
ular dirty  one"  is,  indeed,  a  phrase  commonly 
used  to  designate  one  who  is  no  novice  at  this 
profession,  and  the  long  hair  and  unkempt  beards 
of  the  outlaws  add  to  the  general  ferocity  of  their 
appearance.  The  chief  of  a  Greek  band  is,  how- 
ever, like  the  Spano  Vangheli  above  mentioned, 
usually  distinguished  from  the  rest  by  wearing 
on  his  breast  the  "St.  George."  As  for  food, 
the  flocks  of  the  Christian  shepherds  are  at  their 
mercy,  and  the  peasant,  trembling  for  the  safety 
of  his  home,  dare  not  refuse  to  comply  with  their 
demands  for  bread  and  wine,  and  whatever  other 
provisions  he  may  be  able  to  supply.  Orchards 
can  easily  be  plundered  of  apples,  pears,  and 
plums,  and  vineyards  of  grapes;  and  wild  fruits, 
such  as  cornel,  arbutus,  and  strawberries,  grow 
in  abundance  on  the  hills. 

With  a  captive  in  their  hands,  however,  the 
brigands  usually  retreat  to  one  of  their  least  ac- 


Brigand  Life  3J5 

cessible  hiding-places,  holding  as  little  intercourse 
with  the  world  as  possible,  and  sometimes  ex- 
perience some  difficulty  in  obtaining  supplies. 
On  Colonel  Synge's  return  to  Salonica  from  his 
month's  captivity  on  Mount  Olympus,  we  asked 
him  how  he  fared  in  this  respect.  "Well,"  he 
replied,  "we  lived  chiefly  on  bread  and  goat; 
but  very  often  it  was  either  bread  and  no  goat, 
or  goat  and  no  bread."  The  band  who  held  Mr. 
Suter  to  ransom  in  the  following  year  were,  how- 
ever, so  completely  masters  of  the  situation  that 
neither  they  nor  their  captive  suffered  any  incon- 
venience in  this  respect,  all  the  troops  being 
withdrawn  within  a  radius  of  some  miles  from 
the  leme'ri  at  the  command  of  the  brigands,  who 
threatened  to  cut  off  their  captive's  head  were 
even  a  ^aptieh  seen  in  the  neighbourhood.  And 
during  the  long  captivity  of  Miss  Stone  and  her 
companion,  the  band,  notwithstanding  their  in- 
cessant change  of  quarters,  appear  to  have  expe- 
rienced no  difficulty  in  procuring  the  necessaries 
of  life,  even  a  "  Thanksgiving  Day  "  turkey  being 
provided  at  very  short  notice.  A  lamb  of  the 
year  roasted  whole  a  la  pallikar — "  brigand  fash- 
ion " — constitutes,  indeed,  one  of  the  national 
dishes  of  the  country,  and  is  always  the  piece 
de  resistance  at  picnics,  though  when  cooked  in 
a  brigands'  den  the  regulation  stuffing  of  rice, 
currants,  and  pine  kernels  probably  lacks  occa- 
sionally some  at  least  of  its  ingredients.     Two 


316  Turkish  Life 

forked  sticks  are  fixed  in  the  ground  on  either 
side  of  a  wood  fire,  and  the  spitted  lamb  is  sus- 
pended between  them,  and  kept  revolving  until 
"done  to  a  turn,"  when  it  is  placed  for  dissec- 
tion on  the  grass,  each  klepht  cutting  off  with 
his  dagger  a  portion,  which  he  places  on  the 
grimy  and  greasy  lap  of  his  fustanella  in  lieu  of  a 
platter,  for  in  the  mountains  man  returns  easily 
to  the  habits  of  his  remote  forefathers. 

When  circumstances  appear  to  render  it  safe 
to  do  so,  the  brigands  indulge  in  such  amuse- 
ments as  are  practicable  to  them  in  their  situa- 
tion. A  game  somewhat  similar  to  what  is 
known  in  Scotland  as  "putting  the  stone"  is 
played  with  large  stones  from  the  bed  of  a 
mountain  torrent,  worn  smooth  by  the  action  of 
water.  Wrestling  is  naturally  also  a  favourite 
diversion  of  the  lithe  and  hardy  pallikars ;  and  a 
variety  of  dances — the  Greek  syrtd,  the  Bulgarian 
hora,  and  the  peculiar,  wild  dance  of  the  Al- 
banians, which  is  supposed  to  be  a  survival  of 
the  Pyrrhic  measure — are  all  in  turn  indulged  in 
by  the  members  of  these  mixed  fraternities.  Not, 
however,  by  the  sounds  of  the  native  bagpipe, 
as  at  a  village  feast,  are  these  terpsichorean  per- 
formances accompanied,  but  usually  by  the  low 
hum  of  a  klephtic  dancing  song,  celebrating  the 
deeds  of  some  famous  national  freebooter,  such 
as  the  following,  the  refrain  of  which  is  sung  by 
all  the  performers : 


Brigand  Life  3l7 

(Strophe.)        Lepeni  's  trodden  under  foot, 
(Antistrophe.)        Antoni,  Antoni  ! 

They  Ve  made  of  it  a  highway ! 

Tsoungka,  that  thou  hadst  ne'er  seen  day! 
They  Ve  taken  silver,  taken  gold, 

Antoni,  Antoni ! 
And  pearls,  too,  have  they  taken ; 

Tsoungka  and  the  Lepeniot  ! 
They  Ve  taken  Nikolakaina, 

Antoni,  Antoni  ! 
The  chief  pasha's  fair  lady; 

Tsoungka  and  the  Lepeniot ! 
They  Ve  seized  and  hurried  her  away, 

Antoni,  Antoni  ! 
High  up  to  the  lemeri ; 

Tsoungka  and  the  Lepeniot ! 
And  the  Lepeniot,  born  fool, 

Antoni,  Antoni  ! 
Her  by  the  hair  now  seizes, 

And  to  the  ground  throws  her. 
"  O  let  me  go,  Lepeniot — 

Antoni,  Antoni  I 
And  tear  not  from  my  head  my  hair! 

Tsoungka  and  the  Lepeniot  ! 
But  write  ye  for  the  ransom  now, 

Antoni,  Antoni  ! 
Write  ye  nine  thousand  piastres, 

Tsoungka  and  the  Lepeniot ! 
And  that  twelve  fe^es  you  they  send, 

Antoni,  Antoni  ! 
And  drinks  fifteen  they  send  you, 

Tsoungka  and  the  Lepeniot ! 
And  send  you,  for  the  scribe's  reward, 

Antoni,  Antoni  ! 
An  inkstand  all  of  silver; 

Tsoungka  and  the  Lepeniot ! 


318  Turkish  Life 

And  send  for  each  soul-son  of  you 

Antoni,  Antoni ! 
A  drinking-cup  of  silver." 

Tsoungka  and  the  Lepeniot ! 

Occasionally,  too,  when  the  payment  of  a  ran- 
som is  long  delayed,  and  time  hangs  heavy  on 
the  brigands'  hands,  they  amuse  themselves  in 
somewhat  gruesome  fashion  by  making  their 
captive's  blood  curdle  with  accounts  of  their 
treatment  of  former  hostages  whose  friends  had 
been  dilatory,  and  with  rehearsals  of  the  final 
scene  which  would  be  enacted  in  his  case  should 
the  patience  of  the  band  be  much  further  tried. 

There  are  different  traditional  methods  of  exe- 
cution in  vogue.  In  some  brigand  communities, 
when  the  death  of  a  hostage  has  been  decided 
upon,  it  is  considered  of  the  greatest  importance 
that  every  member  of  the  band  should  deal  a 
blow  at  the  victim,  failure  in  conforming  to  this 
custom  being  held  to  be  highly  unlucky,  and 
invariably  followed  by  the  death,  in  the  next  en- 
counter with  troops,  of  any  brigand  who  has 
thus  withheld  his  hand.  In  others,  one  man  is 
chosen  by  lot  to  fill  the  office  of  executioner,  and 
with  these  it  is  held  to  be  of  good  augury  when 
a  single  stroke  of  the  short,  curved  sword  used 
for  the  purpose  severs  the  head  from  the  body. 
For  brigands  are  extremely  superstitious  folk, 
and  in  addition  to  the  many  peculiar  beliefs 
generally   current  among  the   peasantry,   these 


Brigand  Life  3J9 

gentlemen  of  the  mountain,  both  Christian  and 
Mohammedan,  cherish  a  goodly  number  peculiar 
to  themselves,  and  more  directly  concerning  their 
profession.  These  vary  somewhat,  according  to 
locality,  but,  in  the  main,  are  very  similar  all 
over  the  country.  Before  engaging  in  any 
important  enterprise,  for  instance,  a  sheep  is 
sacrificed  by  the  assembled  band,  and  a  careful 
examination  made  of  its  entrails.  Certain  ap- 
pearances these  may  present  are  construed  as  in- 
dicating the  success  of  their  plans,  while  others 
denote  an  attack  by  soldiers.  If  the  marks  or 
signs  are  interpreted  as  decidedly  adverse,  the 
hardiest  band  will  abandon  a  projected  under- 
taking, however  tempting.  Another  favourite 
form  of  divination  is  by  means  of  the  shoulder- 
blade  of  a  sheep  or  lamb.  The  thin  bone  is 
scraped  clean,  and  held  up  to  the  light,  and  the 
lights  and  shades  exhibited  on  its  surface  are  in- 
terpreted according  to  certain  rules  known  to 
those  who  consult  this  augury,  or  according  to 
the  pictures  they  appear  to  represent.  It  is,  for 
instance,  related  of  Kapitan  Tsapos  that 

A  shoulder  he  for  portion  took,  and  as  the  blade  he  studied, 
There   came   a   paleness   o'er  his  face,   and  low  his  head  he 

bended, 
For  he  had   seen    two   open   graves    fresh  dug    within    his 

courtyard. 

On  the  occasion  of  a   marriage  which   lately 


320  Turkish  Life 

took  place  in  Macedonia  between  the  son  of  one 
brigand  chief  and  the  daughter  of  another,  notice 
was  sent  to  a  village  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  lemeri  that  the  brigands  intended  to  honour 
it  by  having  the  ceremony  performed  there. 
Promises  of  protection  were  made  if  the  villagers 
maintained  silence  with  regard  to  the  intended 
visit,  and  dire  threats  of  vengeance  if  they  be- 
trayed them  to  the  Turkish  authorities.  On  the 
appointed  day  the  wedding  party  arrived,  ac- 
companied by  a  Greek  priest,  and  the  ceremony 
was  performed*  according  to  the  rites  of  the  Or- 
thodox Church.  This  concluded,  the  two  bri- 
gand bands  formed  a  circle  round  their  chiefs. 
The  latter  then  bared  their  left  arms;  an  incision 
was  made  in  each,  the  blood  that  flowed  from 
them  was  allowed  to  mingle,  and  a  solemn  vow 
of  brotherhood,  administered  by  the  priest,  was 
sworn  between  the  two  Kapitans.  Festivities 
of  various  kinds  followed,  sheep  and  goats  were 
roasted,  and  the  villagers  were  invited  to  join 
the  feast.  Then,  amid  many  mystic  ceremonies, 
a  sheep  was  sacrificed,  and  libations  of  wine 
were  poured  out.  The  customary  auguries  were 
drawn  from  the  appearance  of  the  intestines, 
which  indicated  early  pursuit  by  Turkish  troops; 
but  the  villagers  were  assured  that,  should  they 
be  molested  by  the  soldiers,  the  bands  would 
come  to  their  rescue.  Three  days  afterwards  a 
detachment  of  soldiers,  commanded  by  an  of- 


Brigand  Life  321 

ficer,  arrived,  and  began  to  ill-treat  and  arrest 
the  peasants,  according  to  their  custom  in  such 
cases,  besides  demanding  money  from  them. 
Signals  were  made  to  the  brigands,  who  had  re- 
mained in  the  vicinity,  and  descending  from  the 
hills  they  attacked  and  drove  off  the  soldiery, 
several  of  whom  were  killed. 

On  the  formation  of  a  new  band,  the  members 
meet  in  solemn  conclave  and  take  the  customary 
oaths.  A  few  drops  of  blood  from  the  arm  of 
each  outlaw  are  mixed  with  flour  and  made  into 
pills,  and  as  each  man  swallows  this  emblem  of 
unity  he  pronounces  a  solemn  oath  on  the  Gos- 
pels and  Cross,  or  on  the  Koran,  according  to 
his  faith,  and  sometimes  also  on  sword  and  gun, 
to  obey  the  chief  in  all  things,  and  to  be  faithful 
to  his  comrades  to  the  death.  When  brigands  are 
desirous  of  possessing  themselves  of  money  or 
treasure  which  they  suspect  to  have  been  hidden 
out  of  their  reach,  they  kill  or  mutilate  the  per- 
son supposed  to  have  concealed  it.  A  portion 
of  his  body  is  taken  to  some  crafty  old  hag  who 
follows  the  calling  of  village  witch.  The  fat  is 
extracted,  and,  mixed  with  wax  or  tallow,  made 
into  a  candle,  armed  with  which  the  brigand 
commences  his  search,  in  the  belief  that  the  light 
of  his  taper  will  be  extinguished  when  he  ap- 
proaches the  spot  where  the  treasure  is  secreted. 
This  superstition  accounts  for  the  fingers  of  cap- 
tives having  been  cut  off  even  when  they  were 


322  Turkish  Life 

not  required  to  send  to  their  friends  to  stimulate 
their  zeal  in  procuring  the  ransom.  One  of  the 
murderers  of  a  family  of  seven  persons  was  de- 
tected by  his  applying  to  an  old  witch  to  have 
one  of  these  candles  made.  The  crime  had  been 
committed  for  the  sake  of  plunder;  and  as  the 
sum  found  in  the  house  was  smaller  than  the 
murderers  had  expected  recourse  was  had  to 
supernatural  aid  to  discover  the  remainder. 

Almost  every  brigand  wears  an  amulet.  If  a 
Greek,  it  is  frequently  an  old  copy,  or  a  few 
pages,  of  the  Gospels.  A  once  notorious,  but 
now  pardoned,  brigand  always  attributed  a  seri- 
ous misfortune  which  befell  him  to  his  having 
laid  his  aside  for  a  few  minutes,  —  a  very  old 
copy,  which  he  carried  in  an  elaborately  chased 
silver  case,  suspended  round  his  neck  by  a 
chain.  Moslem  Albanians  carry  an  amulet  in 
a  small  metal  case  attached  to  a  strap,  which  is 
worn  on  the  upper  part  of  the  left  arm.  Very 
numerous,  too,  are  the  ceremonies  observed 
with  the  object  of  ensuring  good,  and  averting 
bad  luck. 

The  methods  adopted  by  brigands  for  obtain- 
ing possession  of  a  captive  vary  greatly.  When- 
ever possible,  they  are  waylaid  on  the  road  or  in 
the  fields,  as  offering  less  risk  to  the  captors. 
But  should  this  be  impracticable,  the  bandits 
will  not  scruple  to  attack  not  only  solitary 
tchiftliks  and  farmsteads,  but  houses  situated  in 


Brigand  Life  323 

the  centre  of  villages.  Even  the  dwellings  of 
wealthy  burghers  in  such  considerable  towns  as 
Vodhena  have  within  recent  years  been  made 
the  objects  of  repeated  sieges  by  these  audacious 
outlaws.  Captives  have,  indeed,  been  carried  off 
under  the  very  eyes  of  Turkish  guards,  quartered 
in  a  neighbouring  house  for  their  special  protec- 
tion, as  in  the  case  of  Mr.  Suter,  when  three 
captains  and  their  united  bands  took  possession 
of  the  village  of  Isvor,  in  which  he  was  residing, 
the  military  either  not  daring,  or  not  caring,  to 
interfere.  Nor  is  it  always  for  greed  of  gain 
that  such  outrages  are  perpetrated.  As  men- 
tioned in  a  previous  chapter,  vendettas  are  rigor- 
ously observed  by  the  Albanians,  and  vengeance 
is  invariably  executed  by  brigands  of  this  race  on 
opponents  or  their  kinsfolk  who  have  directly  or 
indirectly  caused  the  death  of  any  of  their  num- 
ber. Harrowing  are  the  stories  told — only  too 
well  founded,  alas! — of  innocent  victims  of  this 
terrible  blood-feud.  To  take  a  few  instances 
only:  A  youth,  the  only  son  of  his  mother  and 
she  a  widow,  is  carried  off  and  never  more 
heard  of,  because  his  father,  himself  slain  by 
brigands,  had  caused  the  death  of  one  or  more 
of  his  enemies.  Passing  the  ruins  of  a  farmstead 
on  the  outskirts  of  a  populous  village,  one  is 
informed  that  its  former  occupants,  after  having 
been  repeatedly  plundered  by  brigand  bands, 
have,  some  been  killed,  and  the  rest,  reduced  to 


324  Turkish  Life 

penury,  have  been  compelled  to  seek  a  refuge 
elsewhere.  Here  and  there  whole  villages  are 
found  to  have  disappeared,  their  former  sites  in- 
dicated only  by  the  decaying  tombstones  of 
a  weed-choked  burial-ground.  Occasionally,  a 
band  will  descend  upon  some  hill-village,  remote 
from  any  military  station,  and  quarter  itself  on 
the  unfortunate  inhabitants.  The  latter  may, 
perhaps,  find  means  to  send  notice  to  the  nearest 
town  of  the  presence  of  their  unwelcome  guests. 
But  if  the  birds  should  be  flown  when  these 
arrive,  as  will  most  probably  be  the  case,  the 
notables  of  the  village  run  the  risk  of  being 
charged  with  complicity  with  the  brigands  and 
subjected  in  consequence  to  intolerable  perse- 
cution at  the  hands  of  the  authorities. 

After  carrying  off  a  captive,  the  usual  mode  of 
procedure  is  to  send  a  letter,  after  the  lapse  of  a 
few  days,  to  the  prisoner's  relatives,  stating  the 
amount  of  the  ransom  demanded  for  his  release, 
and  also  enumerating  a  number  of  articles  which 
they  usually  require  in  addition,  such  as  watches, 
shoes,  fustanellas,  fezes,  bread,  wine,  and  raki, 
and  fixing  the  time  and  place  for  its  payment. 
The  missive  is  sent  by  hand,  entrusted  perhaps 
to  a  heradji,  waylaid  on  the  highroad  for  this 
purpose,  or  to  some  peasant  who  dare  not  refuse 
to  do  the  brigands'  bidding.  Two  or  three 
members  of  the  band  will  be  entrusted  with  the 
business  of  receiving  the  ransom,  and  on  their 


Brigand  Life  325 

return  to  the  lemeri,  the  captive  is  sent  under 
escort  to  the  rendezvous.  The  etiquette  ob- 
served under  such  circumstances  between  the 
authorities  and  the  outlaws  is  that  the  former 
will  allow  the  emissaries  freedom  to  fulfil  the 
mission  entrusted  to  them,  and  that  neither  in 
the  meantime  nor  for  some  hours  after  the  re- 
lease of  the  prisoner  will  the  band  be  pursued 
by  laptiehs,  or  the  soldiery,  any  breach  of  this 
understanding  invariably  resulting  in  the  death 
of  the  captive.  A  foreigner's  ransom  nowadays 
is  generally,  in  European  Turkey  at  least,  fixed 
at  from  ^10,000  to  ,£15,000;  that  of  a  native, 
according  to  the  wealth  and  position  of  his 
family,  from  fifty  pounds  to  a  thousand  or  two. 
It  may  be  added  that  a  Macedonian  farmer  or 
burgher,  not  hitherto  suspected  of  being  too 
well-to-do,  on  being  released  from  captivity  at 
a  great  sacrifice  of  worldly  wealth,  not  infre- 
quently finds  himself  liable,  on  various  pretexts, 
to  still  further  imposition  at  the  hands  of  the 
local  authorities.  In  addition  to  the  danger  of 
surprise  and  attack  by  troops,  a  band  holding  a 
captive  to  ransom  is  also  occasionally  menaced 
by  the  hostility  of  rival  brigands  desirous  of  ap- 
propriating their  prey;  and  fierce  encounters  of 
this  kind  have  not  infrequently  taken  place  on 
the  mountains,  though  seldom  resulting  in  the 
hostage's  changing  hands.  When  the  approach 
of  winter  compels  the  brigands  to  abandon  their 


326  Turkish  Life 

mountain  fastnesses,  they  disperse,  after  settling 
upon  a  rendezvous  for  their  spring  meeting;  and, 
exchanging  the  black  kerchief  and  dirty  white 
kilt  of  the  klepht  for  the  white  fez  and  baggy 
breeches  of  the  peasant,  seek  harbourage  in  the 
lowlands.  Graphically  described  in  the  following 
Greek  folk-song  is  the  klepht' s  wintering: 

The  trees   are  faded,  withered  all;  the  hills  with  snow  are 

glistening. 
The  Vlachs  into  the  lowlands  go — they  go  for  winter  pasture. 
The  Klepht,  where  shall  he  shelter  find  ?  He  leaves  the  mount- 
ain ridges, 
His  garb  he   changes,  through  the  woods  all  silently  he's 

stealing. 
No  smile  is  there  upon  his  lips;    with  head  bent  low  he  's 

striding. 
He  counts  the  passing  days  and  nights,  and  waits  the  hour 

impatient, 
When   spring  shall  open,  beeches  bud,  and  he  gird  on  his 

weapons; 
With  gun  on  shoulder,  run  again  along  the  rocky  ridges, 
And  climb  into  the  mountains  high,  and  reach  the  Klephts' 

lemeri, 
To  mingle  with  his  company,  and  ply  again  his  calling — 
To  slay  the  Turk  wherever  found,  to  strip  bare  every  trav'ller, 
And  wealthy  captives  seize  upon,  to  hold  them  fast  to  ransom. 

Albanian  brigands,  indeed,  often  pass  the  win- 
ter months  comfortably  and  securely  on  the 
estate  of  some  Moslem  landowner,  who,  for 
various  motives,  will  ask  no  indiscreet  questions 
when  one  of  his  henchmen  announces  that  a 


Brigand  Life 


327 


"cousin"  from  a  distance  has  come  to  pay  him 
a  visit,  knowing  how  advantageous  it  is  to  put 
under  an  obligation  a  member  of  a  race  whose 
code  of  honour  is  so  precise. 


GLOSSARY 

Ablest— the  ablution  before  prayer. 

Adjemi — a  rustic,  an  uncivilised  person. 

Arnaut — an  Albanian. 

Arravon — a  Greek  betrothal. 

Bakai — a  chandler. 

Bakshish — a  present,  a  bribe. 

Bashibafouk — a  Turkish  irregular  soldier. 

Bektchi — a  night-watchman. 

Beylikdji — a  tax-farmer. 

Boktcha — a  bundle-wrap. 

Bulka — a  Bulgarian  housewife. 

Cavass — an  armed  orderly  attached  to  consulates,  banks,  etc. 

Chetola — a  notched  stick  for  keeping  accounts,  a  tally. 

Chiplak — an  Albanian  adventurer  in  low  water. 

Daira — an  establishment. 

Divan-khane — a  reception-room. 

Djereed — a  game  played  on  horseback  with  sticks. 

Djins —  demons. 

Doubana — a  small  drum. 

Dua — a  prayer. 

Dughun — the  festivities  connected  with  weddings,  etc. 

Ebe — a  midwife. 

Effendi — gentleman,  "  Sir." 

Esnafs — trade-guilds. 

E^an — the  call  to  prayer. 

Fatiha — the  opening  chapter  of  the  Koran. 

Feridje — a  Turkish  lady's  cloak. 

329 


33°  Glossary 

Firman — an  Imperial  permit. 

Giaour — a  non-Mohammedan,  an  unbeliever. 

Goumronkdji — a  customs  officer. 

Hadji — a  pilgrim. 

Hamal — a  porter. 

Hammam — a  Turkish  bath. 

Hanum — a  Turkish  lady. 

Harem — the  female  members  of  a  Mohammedan  family,  a 
sacred  enclosure. 

Haremlik — the  women's  apartments. 

Havale — an  order  on  the  Imperial  treasury. 

Hodja — a  teacher. 

Imam — the  minister  of  a  mosque. 

Kadi — a  civil  judge. 

Kadin — a  married  lady. 

Kahvedji — coffee-maker. 

Kaif—ease,  pleasure. 

Ka'ik —  a  light  boat  with  two  prows. 

Kaikdji — a  boatman . 

Kain  Valide— mother-in-law. 

Kalfa — a  head-servant. 

Kanoun — a  kind  of  zither. 

Kebab — mutton  grilled  on  skewers. 

Kena — henna. 

Keradji — a  muleteer,  or  carrier. 

Khan — a  hostelry. 

Kharatch — the  poll-tax  imposed  on  Christians  in  lieu  of  mili- 
tary service. 

Khatib — a  scribe. 

Kiblah — the  direction  ot  Mekka. 

Kilerdji — steward  of  the  household. 

Kismet — destiny. 

Klepht — a  Greek  brigand. 

Kodja-bashi — a  head  man,  or  mayor. 

Konak — a  provincial  Government  House,  a  mansion. 

Lemeri — a  brigand's  hiding-place. 


Glossary  33 x 


Lira — a  gold  coin  worth  ioo  piastres,  about  185. 

Mabeyn — the  master's  apartments. 

Mahallah — a  street,  a  quarter. 

Medjliss — municipal  council. 

Medresseh — a  mosque  college. 

Mekteb — a  parish  school. 

Memlouke— freehold  land. 

Mesdjid — a  small  mosque. 

Mevlud — a  Moslem  holy  day. 

Meftlik — a  hors  d'auvre. 

Mirie — Crown  lands. 

Moavin — a  Christian  vice-governor. 

Mollah — a  judge,  a  preacher. 

Mudir — a  justice  of  the  peace. 

Mueftim — a  caller  to  prayer. 

Mufti — a  superior  judge. 

Musdadji — a  news-bringer. 

Nama% — the  Moslem  formula  of  devotion. 

Namekhram — the  restrictions  imposed  upon  women. 

Narghile — the  water-pipe. 

Nekyah — a  Moslem  marriage  contract. 

Rahat-loukoum — "  Easy  mouthfuls,"  "  Turkish  delight." 

Raki — a  native  spirit. 

Saka — a  water-carrier. 

Saraf—a.  money-changer. 

Selamlik — a  reception. 

Seraili — a  woman  resident,  or  trained,  in  the  Imperial  Palace. 

Shekh — the  principal  of  a  community. 

Sheriat — the  ecclesiastical  code. 

Skipe — an  Albanian. 

Sofra — the  low  table  or  tray-stand  used  for  meals. 

Sofia — a  Mohammedan  undergraduate. 

Soubashi — a  land  steward. 

Sunna — the  Mohammedan  "Traditions." 

Tandour — a  warming  apparatus. 

Tapou — a  title-deed. 


332  Glossary 

Tapou-memour — a  registrar  of  title-deeds. . 

Tcharshi — a  market,  a  bazaar. 

Tchibouk — a  long  wooden  pipe. 

Tchiftlik — a  country  estate,  a  large  farm. 

Tchirak — an  apprentice. 

Tchit-icharf— the  outdoor  dress  of  Turkish  women. 

Tekkeh — a  dervish  monastery. 

Temend — the  Turkish  obeisance. 

Te^ek — fuel  composed  of  cow  dung  and  straw. 

Turbeh — the  mausoleum  of  a  prince  or  holy  man. 

Vakouf—  church  property. 

Valide — a  dowager. 

Yashmak — veil  worn  by  Turkish  ladies. 

Yataghan — a  long  curved  knife. 

Yetnek — the  evening  meal,  food. 

Yeradji — a  Macedonian  peasant  working  on  a  tchiftlik. 

Ziaret — a  pilgrimage  to  one  of  the  lesser  shrines  of  Islam. 


INDEX 

Administration,  6 
i  Agricultural  life,  107,  112,  240,  252 
Albanians,  I,  65,  217 
Armenians,  1,  259;  literature,  268 

Bath,  31,  57,  96 

Bazaar,  the,  31 

Betrothal,  customs  at,  226,  254 

Bey,  the,  4,  106 

Brigand  life,  305 

Bulgarians,  1,  250 

Bureaucracy,  the,  36,  37 

Christian  population,  54,  65,  235 
Circassians,  1,  78 
Circumcision,  rite  of,  101,  155 
Coffee-houses,  58 

Constantinople,  46,  62,  66,  79,  204 
V  Country  life,  105 
Culture,  196 
Customs,  social,  91 

Dancing,  60,  242,  253 
Dervish  orders,  the,  177 
Divorce,  conditions  of,  13 
Domestic  arrangements,  24,  75 

Education,  196,  242 

333 


334  Index 

Fasts,  the  annual,  1 59 
Festivals,  11,99,  ,29»  '^i,  220 
Folk-lore,  209 
Folk  songs,  230,  306 
Funeral,  a  Turkish,  1 72 

Games  and  sports,  60 
Gipsies,  1,  303 
Government,  the,  41,  132 
Greeks,  1,  52,  235 

Harem  and  harem  life,  13,  25,  75,  138 

Hebrew  colonies,  275 

House  and  home,  23,  224,  251,  260 

Imams  (priests),  the,  10,  118 
Industrial  life,  6} 
Injustice,  judicial,  8 

Jews,  i,  275 
Judicial  system,  6 

Khans,  the,  32 
Kurds,  1 ,  299 

T  Land  system,  19,  109 
Legal  rights  of  women,  14 
Literary  life,  206 
Literature,  Turkish,  209;  Armenian,  268 

Macedonian  nationalities,  234 
Magic,  belief  in,  175 

Marriage,  12,  82,  102,  222,  226,  243,  265,  287,  293 
v  Metayer  system,  109 
Middle-class  life,  24 
Monastic  life,  1 77 
Moslem  faith,  146 


Index  335 


Mosque  colleges,  198 
Music,  214,  230 

f  Nomad  life,  289 

Official  life  and  families,  36 
Ottoman  Turks,  1 ,  2 

Palace  life,  1 25 
*- Peasantry,  52,  109,  240,  252 
Pilgrimages,  152 
Polygamy,  12,  288,  292 
Press  censorship,  44,  47,  206 
Pride  of  race,  3,  221 
Provincial  towns,  23 
Public  order,  72 

Races  and  racial  differences,  1-3 
Religion  and  religious  system,  10,  146,  177,  220,  268 
■V*  Rural  life,  105 

Schools,  196 

Slaves  and  slave  trade,  79,  141 

Social  life  and  intercourse,  43,  190 

Songs,  230,  306 

Sports  and  games,  60 

Sublime  Porte,  41 

Sultan,  life  of,  125 

Superstitions,  174,  232,  256,  266,  297,  321 

Tartars,  1,  297 
V  Taxation,  in,  120 
Town  life,  35 
Trade  guilds,  63 

Ulema,  the,  9,  200 
Urban  life,  35 


336 


Index 


Vendetta,  the  Albanian,  223 
1-  Villages  and  village  life,  1 16 
Vlachs,  I,  197,  246 

Water  carriers,  67 
Wedding,  a  Turkish,  102 
Wife,  position  of  the,  13,  75 
Women,  Turkish,  13,  75 
Worship,  public,  147 

Yildiz  Kiosk,  life  at,  125 
"  Young  Turkey  "  party,  \6 
*  Yuruks,  290 


Jl  Selection  from  the 
Catalogue  of 

G.  P.  PUTNAM'S  SONS 


Complete  Catalogue  sent 
on  application 


Our  European  Neighbours 

Edited  by  WILLIAM  HARBUTT  DAWSON 

12°.    Illustrated.    Each,  net  $1.20 
By  Mail 1.30 

I.— FRENCH  LIFE  IN  TOWN  AND  COUNTRY 

By  Hannah  Lynch. 

"  Miss  Lynch 's  pages  are  thoroughly  interesting  and  suggestive. 
Her  style,  too,  is  not  common.  It  is  marked  by  vivacity  without 
any  drawback  of  looseness,  and  resembles  a  stream  that  runs 
strongly  and  evenly  between  walls.  It  is  at  once  distinguished  and 
useful.  .  .  .  Her  five-page  description  (not  dramatization)  of  the, 
grasping  Paris  landlady  is  a  capital  piece  of  work.  .  .  .  Such 
well-finished  portraits  are  frequent  in  Miss  Lynch's  book,  which  is 
small,  inexpensive,  and  of  a  real  excellence."—  The  London  Academy. 
"  Miss  Lynch's  book  is  particularly  notable.  It  is  the  first  of  a 
series  describing  the  home  and  social  life  of  various  European 
peoples— a  series  long  needed  and  sure  to  receive  a  warm  welcome. 
Her  style  is  frank,  vivacious,  entertaining,  captivating,  just  the 
kind  for  a  book  which  is  not  at  all  statistical,  political,  or  contro- 
versial. A  special  excellence  of  her  book,  reminding  one  of  Mr- 
Whiteing's,  lies  in  her  continual  contrast  of  the  English  and  the 
French,  and  she  thus  sums  up  her  praises :  '  The  English  are 
admirable :  the  French  are  lovable.'  "—The  Outlook. 

II.— GERMAN  LIFE  IN  TOWN  AND  COUNTRY 

By  W.  H.  Dawson,  author  of  "Germany  and  the 
Germans,"  etc. 

"The  book  is  as  full  of  correct,  impartial,  well-digested,  and 
well-presented  information  as  an  egg  is  of  meat.  One  can  only 
recommend  it  heartily  and  without  reserve  to  all  who  wish  to  gain 
an  insight  into  German  life.  It  worthily  presents  a  great  nation, 
now  the  greatest  and  strongest  in  Europe."— Commercial  Advertiser. 

III.— RUSSIAN   LIFE  IN  TOWN   AND  COUNTRY 

By  Francis  H.  E.  Palmer,  sometime  Secretary  to 
H.  H.  Prince  Droutskop-Loubetsky  (Equerry  to 
H.  M.  the  Emperor  of  Russia). 

"  We  would  recommend  this  above  all  other  works  of  its  charac* 
ter  to  those  seeking  a  clear  general  understanding  of  Russian  life, 
character,  and  conditions,  but  who  have  not  the  leisure  or  inclina- 
tion to  read  more  voluminous  tomes.  ...  It  cannot  be  too  highly 
recommended,  for  it  conveys  practically  all  that  well-informed 
people  should  know  of  'Our  European  Neighbours.'  ''—Mail  and 
Express. 


Our  European  Neighbours 


IV.— DUTCH  LIFE  IN  TOWN  AND  COUNTRY 

By  P.  M.  Hough,  B.A. 

"There  is  no  other  book  which  gives  one  so  clear  a  picture  of 
actual  life  in  the  Netherlands  at  the  present  date.  For  its  accurate 
presentation  of  the  Dutch  situation  in  art,  letters,  learning,  and 
politics  as  well  as  in  the  round  of  common  life  in  town  and  city, 
this  book  deserves  the  heartiest  praise."—  Evening  Post. 

"Holland  is  always  interesting,  in  any  line  of  study.  In  this 
work  its  charm  is  carefully  preserved.  The  sturdy  toil  of  the  people, 
their  quaint  characteristics,  their  conservative  retention  of  old  dress 
and  customs,  their  quiet  abstention  from  taking  part  in  the  great 
affairs  of  the  world  are  clearly  reflected  in  this  faithful  mirror.  The 
illustrations  are  of  a  high  grade  of  photographic  reproductions."— 
Washington  Post. 

V.— SWISS  LIFE  IN  TOWN  AND  COUNTRY 

By  Alfred  T.  Story,  author  of  the  "  Building  of 
the  British  Empire,"  etc. 

"  We  do  not  know  a  single  compact  book  on  the  same  subject 
in  which  Swiss  character  in  all  its  variety  finds  so  sympathetic  and 
yet  thorough  treatment ;  the  reason  of  this  being  that  the  author 
has  enjoyed  privileges  of  unusual  intimacy  with  all  classes,  which 
prevented  his  lumping  the  people  as  a  whole  without  distinction 
of  racial  and  cantonal  feeling."— Nation. 

"There  is  no  phase  of  the  lives  of  these  sturdy  republicans, 
whether  social  or  political,  which  Mr.  Story  does  not  touch  upon ; 
and  an  abundance  of  illustrations  drawn  from  unhackneyed  sub- 
jects adds  to  the  value  of  the  book."— Chicago  Dial. 

VI.— SPANISH  LIFE  IN  TOWN  AND  COUNTRY 

By  L.  Higgin. 

"  Illuminating  in  all  of  its  chapters.  She  writes  in  thorough 
sympathy,  born  of  long  and  intimate  acquaintance  with  Spanish 
people  of  to-day."— St.  Paul  Press. 

"The  author  knows  her  subject  thoroughly  and  has  written  a 
most  admirable  volume.  She  writes  with  genuine  love  for  the 
Spaniards,  and  with  a  sympathetic  knowledge  of  their  character 
and  their  method  of  life."— Canada  Methodist  Review. 


Our  European  Neighbours 


VII.— ITALIAN  LIFE  IN  TOWN  AND  COUNTRY 

By   LUIGI  VlLLARI. 

"  A  most  interesting  and  instructive  volume,  which  presents  an 
intimate  view  of  the  social  habits  and  manner  of  thought  of  the 
people  of  which  it  treats."— Buffalo  Express. 

"  A  book  full  of  information,  comprehensive  and  accurate.  Its 
numerous  attractive  illustrations  add  to  its  interest  and  value.  We 
are  glad  to  welcome  such  an  addition  to  an  excellent  series."— 
Syracuse  Herald. 


VIII.— DANISH  LIFE  IN  TOWN  AND  COUNTRY 

By  Jessie  H.  Brochner. 

"  Miss  Brochner  has  written  an  interesting  book  on  a  fascinat- 
ing subject,  a  book  which  should  arouse  an  interest  in  Denmark  in 
those  who  have  not  been  there,  and  which  can  make  those  who 
know  and  are  attracted  by  the  country  very  homesick  to  return." — 
Commercial  Advertiser. 

"  She  has  sketched  with  loving  art  the  simple,  yet  pure  and 
elevated  lives  of  her  countrymen,  and  given  the  reader  an  excellent 
idea  of  the  Danes  from  every  point  of  view."— Chicago  Tribune, 


IX.— AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN  LIFE  IN  TOWN  AND 
COUNTRY 

By  Francis  H.  E.  Palmer,  author  of  "  Russian 

Life  in  Town  and  Country,"  etc. 

"  No  volume  in  this  interesting  series  seems  to  us  so  notable  o» 
valuable  as  this  on  Austro-Hungarian  life.  Mr.  Palmer's  long  resi- 
dence in  Europe  and  his  intimate  association  with  men  of  mark, 
especially  in  their  home  life,  has  given  to  him  a  richness  of  experi- 
ence evident  on  every  page  of  the  book."—  The  Outlook. 

"This  book  cannot  be  too  warmly  recommended  to  those  who 
have  not  the  leisure  or  the  spirit  to  read  voluminous  tomes  of  this 
subject,  yet  we  wish  a  clear  general  understanding  of  Austro-Hun- 
garian life."— Hartford  Times. 


Our  European  Neighbours 


X.— TURKISH  LIFE  IN  TOWN  AND  COUNTRY 

By  L.  M.  J.  Garnett. 

**  The  general  tone  of  the  book  is  that  of  a  careful  study,  the 
style  is  flowing,  and  the  matter  is  presented  in  a  bright,  taking 
way."—  St.  Paul  Press. 

"To  the  average  mind  the  Turk  is  a  little  better  than  a  blood- 
thirsty individual  with  a  plurality  of  wives  and  a  paucity  of  vir- 
tues. To  read  this  book  is  to  be  pleasantly  disillusioned."— Public 
Opinion. 


XI.— BELGIAN  LIFE  IN  TOWN  AND  COUNTRY 

By  Demetrius  C.  Boulger 

"  Mr.  Boulger  has  given  a  plain,  straight-forward  account  of 
the  several  phases  of  Belgian  I^ife,  the  government,  the  court,  the 
manufacturing  centers  and  enterprises,  the  literature  and  science, 
the  army,   education  and  religion,  set  forth  informingly."— The 

Detroit  Free  Press. 

"  The  book  is  one  of  real  value  conscientiously  written,  and 
well  illustrated  by  good  photographs."—  The  Outlook. 


XII.— SWEDISH  LIFE  IN  TOWN  AND  COUNTRY 

By  G.  von  HeidensTam. 

M  As  we  read  this  interesting  book  we  seem  to  be  wandering 
through  this  land,  visiting  its  homes  and  schools  and  churches, 
studying  its  government  and  farms  and  industries,  and  observing 
the  dress  and  customs  and  amusements  of  its  healthy  and  happy 
people.  The  book  is  delightfully  written  and  beautifully  illus- 
trated."— Presbyterian  Banner. 

"In  this  intimate  account  of  the  Swedish  people  is  given  a 
more  instructive  view  of  their  political  and  social  relations  than  it 
has  been  the  good  fortune  of  American  readers  heretofore  to  ob- 
tain. » '—  Washington  Even.  Star. 


Our  Asiatic  Neighbours 


12°.    Illustrated.    Eacii,  net  $1.20 
By  mail     ...  •    1.30 


8.— INDIAN  LIFE  IN  TOWN  AND  COUNTRY 

By  Herbert  Compton. 

"  Mr.  Compton 's  book  is  the  best  book  on  India,  its  life  and  its 
people,  that  has  been  published  in  a  long-  time.  The  reader  will 
find  it  more  descriptive  and  presenting  more  facts  in  a  way  that 
appeals  to  the  man  of  English  speech  than  nine-tenths  of  the 
volumes  written  by  travellers.  It  sets  forth  the  experiences  of  a 
quarter  of  a  century,  and  in  that  period  a  man  can  learn  a  good 
deal,  even  about  an  alien  people  and  civilization,  if  he  keeps  his 
eyes  open.  If  the  other  volumes  in  the  series  are  as  good  as 
'  Indian  Life  in  Town  and  Country '  it  will  score  a  decided  suc- 
cess."—Brooklyn  Eagle. 

"  An  account  of  native  life  in  India  written  from  the  point  of  view 
of  a  practical  man  of  affairs  who  knows  India  from  long  residence. 
It  is  bristling  with  information,  brisk  and  graphic  in  style,  and 
open-minderl  and  sympathetic  in  feeling."— Cleveland  Leader. 


II.-JJAPANESE  LIFE  IN  TOWN  AND  COUNTRY 

By  George  William  Knox,  D.D. 

•'  The  childlike  simplicity,  yet  innate  complexity  of  the  Japanese 
temperament,  the  strangely  mingled  combination  of  new  and  old, 
important  and  worthless,  poetic  and  commercial  instincts,  aims, 
and  ambitions  now  at  work  in  the  land  of  the  cherry  blossom  are 
well  brought  out  by  Dr.  Knox's  conscientious  representation.  The 
book  should  be  widely  read  and  studied,  being  eminently  reason- 
able, readable,  reliable,  and  informative."— Record-Herald. 

M  A  delightful  book,  all  the  more  welcome  because  the  ablest 
scholar  in  Japanese  Confucianism  that  America  has  yet  produced 
has  here  given  us  impressions  of  man  and  nature  in  the  Archi- 
pelago. "TEvening  Post. 


Our  Asiatic  Neighbours 


III.— CHINESE   LIFE  IN  TOWN  AND  COUNTRY 

By  E.  Bard.    Adapted  by  H.  Twitcheix. 

Every  phase  of  Chinese  life  is  touched  on,  explained,  and  made 
dear  in  this  volume.  The  nation's  customs,  its  traits,  its  religion, 
and  its  history,  are  all  outlined  here,  and  the  book  should  be  of 
great  value  in  arriving  at  a  better  understanding  of  a  people  and  a 
country  about  which  there  has  been  so  much  misconception.  The 
Illustrations  add  greatly  to  the  value  of  the  book. 

IV.— AUSTRALIAN  LIFE  IN  TOWN  AND  COUNTRY 

By  E.  C  Bui,EY. 

A  bright,  readable  description  of  life  in  a  fascinating  and  little- 
known  country.  The  style  is  frank,  vivacious,  entertaining,  cap- 
tivating, just  the  kind  for  a  book  which  is  not  at  all  statistical, 
political,  or  controversial. 

V.— PHILIPPINE  LIFE  IN  TOWN   AND  COUNTRY 

By  James  A.  LEROY. 

Mr.  I^eRoy  is  eminently  fitted  to  write  on  life  in  the  Philip- 
pines. He  was  for  several  years  connected  with  the  Department  of 
the  Interior  in  the  Philippine  Government,  when  he  made  a 
special  investigation  of  conditions  in  the  islands.  Since  his  return 
he  has  continued  his  studies  and  is  already  known  as  an  author- 
ity on  the  Philippines.  His  book  gives  a  full  description  of  life 
among  the  native  tribes,  and  also  in  the  Spanish  and  American 
communities. 


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